Beer, Drugs and Meat

A Reconsideration of Early Wari Feasting and Statecraft

Authors

  • Justin Jennings Royal Ontario Museum and the University of Toronto
  • Aleksa K. Alaica University of Alberta
  • Matthew E. Biwer Dickinson College

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.1558/aff.20801

Keywords:

Wari, colonization, feasting, faunal analysis, botanical analysis, festive ethos

Abstract

Feasts were integral to pre-Columbian political economies in the Andes. The large feasts of the Inca Empire, which institutionalized asymmetrical relationships between subjects and the state, are the best known, and a point of comparison for many pre-Inca societies. It is therefore unsurprising that the feasts hosted by the Wari, an expansionist state in the central highland of Peru some 700 years earlier, are often assumed to have played a similar role. In this article, we argue that there were substantial differences between early Wari and Inca practices that reflect the different objectives of their hosts. The large feasts in Inca plazas emphasized the unbridgeable gap between ruler and subjects, while early Wari hosts strove to build interpersonal relationships between households in far more intimate affairs. To better understand the nature of Wari feasting, we discuss the acquisition, preparation, consumption and disposal of roasted camelid meat and hallucinogen-laced beer that were featured at the feasts of the Wari-affiliated settlement of Quilcapampa. The differences in feasting practices may relate to profound differences between early Wari and Inca statecraft that would narrow in Wari’s final century, as the state matured.

Author Biographies

  • Justin Jennings, Royal Ontario Museum and the University of Toronto

    Justin Jennings is Senior Curator of Latin American Archaeology at the Royal Ontario Museum and Associate Professor of Anthropology at the University of Toronto. He studies the expansion and organization of ancient societies in the Andes and elsewhere.

  • Aleksa K. Alaica, University of Alberta

    Aleksa K. Alaica is a Killam Memorial Postdoctoral Fellow in the Department of Anthropology at the University of Alberta. She studies human-animal relationships, political economy, and interregional interaction among past societies of the Andes.

  • Matthew E. Biwer, Dickinson College

    Matthew E. Biwer is a Visiting Assistant Professor of Anthropology and Archaeology at Dickinson College. His research focuses on Andean archaeology, paleoethnobotany, foodways, and sociopolitics in the past.

References

Alaica, Aleksa K., Patricia Quiñonzez Cuzcano and Luis Manuel González La Rosa. 2021. “Vertebrate and Invertebrate Remains at Quilcapampa.” In Quilcapampa: A Wari Enclave in Southern Peru, edited by Justin Jennings, Willy Yépez Álvarez and Stefanie L. Bautista, 350–391. Gainesville: University Press of Florida. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1t2mz3n.17

Anders, Martha B. 1991. “Structure and function at the planned site of Azangaro: Cautionary notes for the model of Huari as a centralized secular state.” In Huari Administrative Structures, edited by William Isbell and Gordon McEwan, 165–198. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, D.C.

Arriaga, Pablo Joseph de. 1968 [1621]. The Extirpation of Idolatry in Peru, translated by L. Clark Keating. Lexington: University of Kentucky Press.

Bélisle, Véronique. 2019. “Hallucinogens and Altered States of Consciousness in Cusco, Peru: A Path to Local Power during Wari State Expansion.” Cambridge Journal of Archaeology 29(3): 373–391. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0959774319000015

Berquist, Stephen. 2021. Assembling an Architecture of the Ayllu: Political Sequence, Historical Process, and Emergent Institutions at the Late Middle Horizon Site of Tecapa, Jequetepeque Valley, Peru. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. University of Toronto, Toronto.

Berquist, Stephen, Felipe Gonzalez McQueen and Justin Jennings. 2021. “Making Quilcapampa: Trails, Petroglyphs, and the Creation of a Moving Place.” In Quilcapampa: A Wari Enclave in Southern Peru, edited by Justin J. Jennings, W. Yépez Álvarez and S. Bautista, 86–130. Tallahassee: University Press of Florida. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1t2mz3n.10

Betanzos, Juan de. 1996 [1557]. Narrative of the Incas, translated and edited by Roland Hamilton and Dana Buchanan. Austin: University of Texas Press.

Bauer, Brian S. 1996. “Legitimization of the State in Inca Myth and Ritual.” American Anthropologist 98(2): 327–337. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1996.98.2.02a00090

Bastien, Joseph W. 1985. Mountain of the Condor: Metaphor and Ritual in an Andean Ayllu. Long Grove: Waveland Press.

Biwer, Matthew E. 2019. Colonialism, Cuisine, and Culture Contact: An Analysis of Provincial Foodways of the Wari Empire (A.D. 600–1000). Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Santa Barbara.

Biwer, Matthew E. and Mallory A. Melton. 2021. “Plant Use at Quilcapampa.” In Quilcapampa: A Wari Enclave in Southern Peru, edited by Justin Jennings, Willy Yépez Álvarez and Stefanie L. Bautista, 307–349. Tallahassee: University Press of Florida. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1t2mz3n.16

Biwer, Matthew E., Aleksa K. Alaica and Patricia Quiñonez Cuzcano. In Press. “Everyday and Extraordinary Meals in the Wari Empire: Zooarchaeological and Paleoethnobotanical Evidence from the site of Quilcapampa La Antigua.” Amerind Volume on Food in the Andes, edited by Marta Alfonso Durruty and Deborah Blom. University of Arizona Press.

Biwer, Matthew E., Willey Yepéz Álvarez, Stefanie Bautista and Justin Jennings. In Press. “Hallucinogens, Alcohol, and Shifting Leadership Strategies in the Ancient Peruvian Andes.” Antiquity.

Blacker, Juan Carlos and Anita G. Cook. 2006. Wari Wasi: Defining Conchopata Houses. Paper presented at the 71st Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Puerto Rico.

Bonavia, Ducio. 2009. The South American Camelids: An Expanded and Corrected Edition. Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press.

Bray, Tamara L. 2003a. “Inka Pottery as Culinary Equipment: Food, Feasting, and Gender in Imperial Design.” Latin American Antiquity 14(1): 3–28. https://doi.org/10.2307/972233

———. 2003b. “To Dine Splendidly: Imperial Pottery, Commensal Politics, and the Inca State.” In The Archaeology and Politics of Food and Feasting in Early States and Empires, edited by Tamara L. Bray, 93–142. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.

———. 2017. “Partnering with Pots: The Work of Objects in the Imperial Inca Project.” Cambridge Archeological Journal 28(2): 243–257. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0959774317000828

Chicoine, David. 2011. “Feasting Landscapes and Political Economy at the Early Horizon Center of Huambacho, Nepeña Valley, Peru.” Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 30: 432–453. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaa.2011.06.003

Christie, Jessica Joyce. 2007. “Did the Inka Copy Cusco? An Answer Derived From an Architectural-Sculptural Model.” Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Anthropology 12(1): 164–199. https://doi.org/10.1525/jlat.2007.12.1.164

Cobo, Bernabé. 1979 [1653]. History of the Inca Empire: An Account of the Indians’ Customs and Their Origin Together with a Treatise on Inca Legends, History, and Social Institutions. Translated and edited by Roland Hamilton. Austin: University of Texas Press.

———. 1990 [1653]. Inca Religion and Customs. Translated and edited by Roland Hamilton. Austin: University of Texas Press.

Conlee, Christina A. 2010. “Nasca and Wari: Local Opportunism and Colonial Ties During the Middle Horizon.” In Beyond Wari Walls: Regional Perspectives on Middle Horizon Peru, edited by Justin Jennings, 96–112. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.

Cook, Anita G. 1992. “The Stone Ancestors: Idioms of Imperial Attire and Rank among Huari Figurines.” Latin American Antiquity 3(4): 341–364. https://doi.org/10.2307/971953

Cook, Anita G. and Mary Glowacki. 2003. “Pots, Politics, and Power: Huari Ceramic Assemblages and Imperial Administration.” In The Archaeology and Politics of Food and Feasting in Early States and Empires, edited by Tamara L. Bray, 173–202. New York: Kluwer Academia/Plenum. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-306-48246-5_7

Cummins, Thomas B. F. 2002. Toasts with the Inca: Andean Abstraction and Colonial Images on Quero Vessels. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

D’Altroy, Terrence N. 2002. The Incas. Malden: Blackwell Publishing.

D’Altroy, Terrence N. and Timothy K. Earle. 1992. “Inka Storage Facilities in the Upper Mantaro Valley, Peru.” In Inka Storage Systems, edited by Terry Y. LeVine, 176–205. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.

deFrance, Susan D. 2014. “The Luxury of Variety: Animals and Social Distinction at the Wari Site of Cerro Baul, Southern Peru.” In Animals and Inequality in the Ancient World, edited by B. S. Arbuckle and S. A. McCarthy, 63–84. University Press of Colorado, Boulder. https://doi.org/10.5876/9781607322863.c003

Denevan, William. 2001. Cultivated Landscapes of Native Amazonia and the Andes. New York: Oxford University Press.

Dietler, Michael. 2001. “Theorizing the Past: Rituals of Consumption, Commensal Politics, and Power in African Contexts.” In Feasts: Archaeological and Ethnographic Perspectives on Food, Politics, and Power, edited by Michael Dietler and Brian Hayden, 65–114. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press.

Dirks, Nicholas B. 1994. “Ritual and Resistance: Subversion as a Social Fact.” In Culture/Power/History: A Reader in Contemporary Social Theory, edited by Geoff Eley, Nicholas B. Dirks and Sherry B. Ortner, 483–503. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780691228006-018

Durkheim, Emile. 1915. The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life. New York: George Allen & Unwin.

Earle, Timothy and Justin Jennings. 2016. “Remodeling the Political Economy of the Wari Empire.” Boletín Arqueología PUCP 16: 209–226.

Finucane, Brian C., Patricia M. Arguto and William H. Isbell. 2006. “Human and Animal Diet at Conchopata, Peru: Stable Isotope Evidence for Maize Agriculture and Animal Management Practices during the Middle Horizon.” Journal of Archaeological Science 33:1766–1776.

Fleisher, Jeffrey. 2010. “Rituals of Consumption and the Poltics of Feasting on the Eastern African Coast, AD 700–1500.” Journal of World Prehistory 23(4): 195–217. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10963-010-9041-3

Gade, Daniel. 2015. Spell of The Urubamba: Anthropogeographical Essays on an Andean Valley in Space and Time. New York: Springer.

Garcilaso de la Vega, El Inca. 1991 [1609]. Comentarios reales de los Incas. Lima: Fondo de Cultura Económica.

Geertz, Clifford. 1973. The Interpretation of Cultures. New York: Basic Books.

Gero, Joan. 1992. “Feasts and Females: Gender Ideology and Political Meals in the Andes.” Norwegian Archaeological Review 25(1): 15–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/00293652.1992.9965542

Goldstein, David, Robin C. Coleman Goldstein and Patrick R. Williams. 2009. “You are What You Drink: A Sociocultural Reconstruction of Pre-Hispanic Fermented Beverage Use at Cerro Baúl, Moquegua, Peru.” In Drink, Power, and Society in the Andes, edited by Justin Jennings and Brenda J. Bowser. 133–166. Tallahassee: University Press of Florida. https://doi.org/10.5744/florida/9780813033068.003.0006

Goldstein, Paul. 2003. “From Stew-eaters to Maize-drinkers: The Chicha Economy and the Tiwanaku Expansion.” In The Archaeology and Politics of Food and Feasting in Early States and Empires, edited by Tamara L. Bray, 143–172. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-306-48246-5_6

González La Rosa, Luis Manuel, Justin Jennings, Giles Spence-Morrow and Willy Yépez Álvarez. 2021. “Settling Quilcapampa: Plan and Adaptation.” In Quilcapampa: A Wari Enclave in Southern Peru, edited by Justin Jennings, Willy Yépez Álvarez and Stefanie L. Bautista, 131–167. Tallahassee: University Press of Florida. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1t2mz3n.11

Gose, Peter. 1996. “Oracles, Divine Kingship, and Political Representation in the Inka State.” Ethnohistory 43(1): 1–32. https://doi.org/10.2307/483342

———. 2018. “Mountains and Pachakutis: Ontology, Politics, and Temporality.” In Powerful Places in the Ancient Andes, edited by Justin Jennings and Edward R. Swenson, 55–90. Tallahassee: University Press of Florida.

Giovannetti, Marco Antonio. 2021. “Chicha and Food for the Inka Feasts: Their Materiality in State Production Contexts in Southern Tawantinsuyu.” Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 62: 101279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaa.2021.101279

Guaman Poma de Ayala, Felipe. 1936 [1615]. Nueva Crónica y Buen Gobierno. Facsimile Edition. Paris: Institute D’Ethnologie.

Hastorf, Christine A. 1990. “The Effect of the Inka State on Sausa Agricultural Production and Crop Consumption.” American Antiquity 55(2): 262–290. https://doi.org/10.2307/281647

Hastorf, Christine A. 1991. “Gender, Space, and Food in Prehistory.” In Engendering Archaeology, edited by Joan M. Gero and Margaret W. Conkey, 132–159. Cambridge: Blackwell.

Hastorf, Christine A. and Sissel Johannessen. 1993. “Pre-Hispanic Political Change and the Role of Maize in the Central Andes.” American Anthropologist 95(1): 115–138. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1993.95.1.02a00060

Hayden, Brian. 2018. Feasting in Southeast Asia. University of Hawai’i Press, Honolulu.

Huáman López, Oscar, Justin Jennings and Willy Yépez Alvarez. 2021. “Quilcapampa’s Ceramics: Imperial Styles and Local Traditions.” In. Quilcapampa: A Wari Enclave in Southern Peru, edited by Justin J. Jennings, W, Yépez Álvarez and S. Bautista, 209–257. Tallahassee: University Press of Florida. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1t2mz3n.13

Hyslop, John. 1984. The Inka Road System. Academic Press, New York.

Isbell, William H. 1991. “Huari Administration and the Orthogonal Cellular Architecture Horizon.” In Huari Administrative Structures, edited by William Isbell and Gordon McEwan, 293–316. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks.

———. 1988. “City and state in Middle Horizon Wari.” In Peruvian Prehistory, edited by Richard W. Keatings, 164–189. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

———. 1997. Mummies and Mortuary Monuments. Austin: University of Texas Press.

———. 2004. “Mortuary Preferences: A Huari Case Study from Middle Horizon Peru.” Latin American Antiquity 15: 3–32. https://doi.org/10.2307/4141562

———. 2006. “Landscapes of Power: A Network of Palaces in Middle Horizon Peru.” In Palaces and Power in the Americas: From Peru to the Northwest Coast, edited by Jessica Joyce Christie and Patricia Joan Sarro, 44–98. University of Texas Press, Austin.

———. 2008. “Wari and Tiwanaku: International Identities in the Central Andean Middle Horizon.” In Handbook of South American Archaeology, edited by Helaine Silverman and William H. Isbell, 731–759. New York: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-74907-5_37

———. 2009. “Huari: A New Direction in Central Andean Urban Evolution.” In Domestic Life in Prehispanic Capitals: A Study of Specialization, Hierarchy, and Ethnicity, edited by Linda R. Manzanilla and Claude Chapdelaine, 197–219. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Number 46. Ann Arrbor: Museum of Anthropology.

Isbell, William H. and Alexi Vranich. 2004. “Experiencing the Cities of Wari and Tiwanaku.” In Andean Archaeology, edited by Helaine Silverman, 167–182. Malden: Blackwell.

Jennings, Justin. 2005. “La Chichera y el Patrón: Chicha and the Energetics of Feasting in the Prehistoric Andes.” In Foundations of Power in the Prehispanic Andes, edited by Christina A. Conlee, Dennis Ogburn and Kevin Vaughn, 241–259. Archaeological Publications of the American Anthropological Association, vol. 14. Washington, D.C.: American Anthropological Association. https://doi.org/10.1525/ap3a.2005.14.241

———. 2019. “Drinking Together: Continuity and Change in the Andean World.” In The Andean World, edited by Linda J. Seligmann and Katleen S. Fine-Dare, 219–234. Abington: Taylor and Francis.

Jennings, Justin, Stephen Berquist, Giles Spence-Morrow, Peter Bikoulis, Felipe Gonzales-Macqueen, Willy Yépez Álvarez and Stefanie L. Bautista. 2018. “A Moving Place: The Two-Millennia-Long Creation of Quilcapampa.” In Powerful Places in the Ancient Andes, edited by Justin Jennings and Edward Swenson, 399–426. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.

Jennings, Justin and Melissa Chatfield. 2009. “Pots, Brewers, and Hosts: Women’s Power and the Limits of Central Andean Feasting.” In Drink, Power, and Society in the Andes, edited by Justin Jennings and Brenda Bowser, 200–231. Gainesville: University Press of Florida. https://doi.org/10.5744/florida/9780813033068.003.0008

Jennings, Justin and Guy Duke. 2018. “Making the Typical Exceptional: The Elevation of Inca Cuisine.” In Oxford Handbook of the Incas, edited by Sonia Alconini and R. Alan Covey, 202–222. New York: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190219352.013.16

Jennings, Justin, and Lidio M. Valdez. 2018. “Ingredients Matter: Maize versus Molle Brewing in Ancient Andean Feasting.” In Ancient Psychoactive Substances, edited by Scott M. Fitzpatrick, 286–318. University Press of Florida, Gainesville. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvx076mt.16

Jennings, Justin and Willy Yépez Álvarez. (eds.). 2015. Tenahaha and the Wari State: A View of the Middle Horizon from the Cotahuasi Valley. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.

Jennings, Justin, Willy Yépez Álvarez and Stefanie L. Bautista. (eds.). 2021. Quilcapampa: A Wari Enclave in Southern Peru. Tallahassee: University Press of Florida. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1t2mz3n

Joyce, Rosemary A. and John S. Henderson. 2007. “From Feasting to Cuisine: Implications of Archaeological research in an early Honduran Village.” American Anthropologist 109(4): 642–653. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.2007.109.4.642

Kassabaum, Megan C. 2019. “A Method for Conceptualizing and Classifying Feasting: Interpreting Communal Consumption in the Archaeological Record.” American Antiquity 84(4): 610–631. https://doi.org/10.1017/aaq.2019.47

Knobloch, Patricia J. 2000. “Wari Ritual Power at Conchopata: An Interpretation of Anadenanthera Colubrina Iconography.” Latin American Antiquity 11(4): 387–402. https://doi.org/10.2307/972003

———. 2012. “Archives in Clay: The Styles and Stories of Wari Ceramic Artists.” In Wari: Lords of the Ancient Andes, edited by Susan E. Bergh, 122–144. Cleveland: Cleveland Museum of Art.

Kosiba, Steven E. 2015. “Of Blood and Soil: Tombs, Wak’as, and the Naturalization of Social Difference in the Inka Heartland.” In The Archaeology of Wak’as: Explorations of the Sacred in the Pre-Columbian Andes, edited by Tamara Bray, 167–212. Boulder: University Press of Colorado. https://doi.org/10.5876/9781607323181.c006

———. 2018. “Cultivating Empire: Inka Intensive Agricultural Strategies.” In Oxford Handbook of the Incas, edited by Sonia Alconini and R. Alan Covey, 227–246. New York: Oxford University Press.

Lau, George F. 2002. “Feasting and Ancestor Veneration at Chinchawas, North Highlands, Ancash, Peru.” Latin American Antiquity 13(3): 279–304. https://doi.org/10.2307/972112

Leoni, Juan B. 2006. “Ritual and Society in Early Intermediate Period Ayacucho: A View from the Site of Ñawinpukypo.” In Andean Archaeology III: North and South, edited by William H. Isbell and Helaine Silverman, 279–306. New York: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-28940-2_13

Lincoln, Bruce. 1989. Discourse and the Construction of Society: Comparative Studies of Myth, Ritual, and Classification. New York: Oxford University Press.

Lumbreras, Luis. 1974a. The Peoples and Cultures of Ancient Peru. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian University Press.

———. 1974b. Las fundaciones de Huamanga. Club Huamanga, Lima.

Levine, Terry Y. 1992. “The Study of Storage Systems.” In Inka Storage Systems, edited by Terry Y. Levine, 3–28. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.

Makowski, Krzysztof. 2014. “Élites imperials y simbolos de poder.” In El Castillo de Huarmey: El mausoleo imperial Wari, edited by Milosz Giersz and Cecilia Pardo, 188–209. Lima: Museo del Arte Lima.

Mayer, Aaron Jay, Matthew Paul Sayre and Justin Jennings. 2016. “Coming Together to Toast and Feed the Dead in the Cotahuasi Valley of Peru.” Ethnobiology Letters 8(1): 46–53. https://doi.org/10.14237/ebl.8.1.2017.658

Mayer, Enrique. 2002. The Articulated Peasant: Household Economies in the Andes. Boulder: Westview Press.

McEwan, Gordon F. and Patrick Ryan Williams. 2012. “The Wari Built Environment: Landscape and Architecture of Empire.” In Wari: Lords of the Ancient Andes, edited by Susan E. Bergh, 65–81. Cleveland: Cleveland Museum of Art.

Meddens, Frank, Katie Willis, Colin McEwan and Nicholas Branch. (eds.). 2014. Inca Sacred Space: Landscape, Site, and Symbols in the Andes. Oxford: Archetype Publications.

Melton, Mallory A., Aleksa K. Alaica, Matthew E. Biwer, Luis Manuel Gonzalez La Rosa, Gwyneth Gordon, Kelly Knudson, Amber M. VanDerwarker and Justin Jennings. In Press. “Synthesizing Microbotanical and Stable Isotope Data from Camelid Teeth to Elucidate Foddering Practices in the Middle Horizon (600–1000 C.E.) Sihuas Valley, Peru.” Latin American Antiquity.

Mengoni Goñalons, Guillermo L. 1991. “La Llama y Sus Productos Primaries.” Arqueológia 1: 179–196.

Menzel, Dorothy. 1964. “Style and time in the Middle Horizon.” N?awpa Pacha 2: 1–105. https://doi.org/10.1179/naw.1964.2.1.001

Morris, Craig. 1979. “Maize Beer in the Economics, Politics, and Religion of the Inca Empire.” In Fermented Food Beverages in Nutrition, edited by Clifford F. Gastineau, William J. Darby and Thomas B. Turner, 21–34. New York: Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-277050-0.50008-2

Moseley, Michael E., Donna J. Nash, P. Ryan Williams and Susan D. de France. 2005. “Burning Down the Brewery: Establishing and Evacuating an Ancient Imperial Colony at Cerro Bau?l, Peru.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 102(48): 17264–17271. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0508673102

Murra, John V. 1960. “Rite and Crop in the Inca State.” In Culture in History: Essays in Honor of Paul Radin, edited by Stanley Diamond, 393–407. New York: Columbia University Press.

———. 1962. “Cloth and its Function in the Inca State.” American Anthropologist 64: 710–728. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1962.64.4.02a00020

———. 1980. The Economic Organization of the Inka State. JAI Press, Greenwich.

Nahum-Claudel, Chloe. 2016. “Feasting.” In The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Anthropology, edited by F. Stein, S. Lazar, M. Candea, H. Diemberger, J. Robbins, A. Sanchez and R. Stasch. New York: Cambridge University Press. http://doi.org/10.29164/16feasting

Nash, Donna. 2011. “Fiestas y La Economía Política Wari en Moquegua, Perú.” Chungará 43(2): 221–242. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0717-73562011000200005

———. 2012. “The Art of Feasting: Building an Empire with Food and Drink.” In Wari: Lords of the Ancient Andes, edited by Susan E. Bergh, 82–102. Cleveland: Cleveland Museum of Art.

———. 2019. “Craft Production as an Empowering Strategy in the Emerging Empire.” Journal of Anthropological Research 75(3): 328–360. https://doi.org/10.1086/704144

Nash, Donna J. and Susan D. deFrance. 2019. “Plotting Abandonment: Excavating a Ritual Deposit at the Wari Site of Cerro Baul.” Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 53: 112–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaa.2018.12.002

Nash, Donna J. and Patrick Ryan Williams. 2009. “Wari Political Organization: The Southern Periphery.” In Andean Civilization: A Tribute to Michael E. Moseley, edited by Joyce Marcus and Patrick Ryan Williams, 257–275. Los Angeles: Costsen Institute of Archaeology at UCLA. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvdmwx3h.17

Nishizawa, Hideyuki. 2011. Shifting Power and Prestige in the Ayacucho Valley, Peru’s South Central Highlands: Materiality of Huarpa and Wari Ceramics. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. Washington D.C.: American University.

Ochatoma Paravicino, José and Martha Cabrera Romero. 2001. Poblados rurales Huari: una visión desde Aqo Wayqo. Ayacucho: Universidad Nacional de San Cristóbal de Huamanga, Facultad de Ciencias Sociales.

Ochatoma Paravicino, José, Martha Cabrera Romero and Carlos Mancilla Rojas. 2015. El Área Sagrada de Wari: Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Vegachayuq Moqu. Universidad de San Cristóbal de Huamanga, Ayacucho.

Pérez Calderón, Ismael and Hamilton Paredes. 2015. “Informe Preliminar de las excavaciones en Waychaupampa, Ayacucho.” Investigación: Universidad de San Cristóbal de Huamanga 23(2): 113–123.

Porter, Benjamin W. 2011. “Feeding the Community: Objects, Sacrality, and Commensality in the Early Iron Age Southern Levant.” Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 24(1): 27–54. https://doi.org/10.1558/jmea.v24i1.27

Ramírez, Susan Elizabeth. 2005. To Feed and Be Fed: The Cosmological Bases of Authority and Identity in the Andes. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

Rasnake, Roger Neil. 1988. Domination and Cultural Resistance: Authority and Power among and Andean People. Durham: Duke University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780822381518

Rosenfeld, Silvana Amanda. 2011. Foodways and Sociopolitics in the Wari Empire of Peru, A.D. 600–900. Unpublished Dissertation. Stanford University, Palo Alto.

———. 2012. “Animal Wealth and Local Power in the Huari Empire.” Nawpa Pacha: Journal of Andean Archaeology 32(1): 131–164. https://doi.org/10.1179/naw.2012.32.1.131

Rosenfeld, Silvana Amanda, Brennan T. Jordan and Megan E. Street. 2021. “Beyond Exotic Goods: Wari Elites and Regional Interaction in the Andes during the Middle Horizon (AD 600–1000).” Antiquity 95(380): 400–416. https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2020.250

Rowe, John H. 1946. “Inca Culture at the Time of the Spanish Conquest.” In Handbook of South American Indians, edited by Julian Steward. Bulletin 143(2): 188–330. Washington D.C.: Bureau of American Ethnography.

Sara-Lafosse, Rafael Vega-Centeno. 2007. “Construction, Labor Organization, and Feasting during the Late Archaic Period in the Central Andes.” Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 26(2): 150–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaa.2006.07.002

Sayre, Matthew, David Goldstein, William T. Whitehead and Patrick Ryan Williams. 2012. “A Marked Preference: Chicha de Molle and Huari State Consumption Practices.” Ñawpa Pacha: Journal of Andean Archaeology 32(2): 231–282. https://doi.org/10.1179/naw.2012.32.2.231

Sayre, Matthew and William T. Whitehead. 2017. “Ritual and Plant Use at Conchopata: An Andean Middle Horizon Site.” In Social Perspectives on Ancient Lives from Paleoethnobotanical Data, edited by Matthew Sayre and Mario Bruno, 121–144. Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-52849-6_6

Schreiber, Katharina J. 1978. Planned Architecture of Middle Horizon Peru: Implications for Social and Political Organization. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, SUNY-Binghamton.

———. 1992. Wari Imperialism in Middle Horizon Peru. Ann Arbor: Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan.

———. 2001. “The Wari Empire of Middle Horizon Peru: The Epistemological Challenge of Documenting an Empire without Documentary Evidence.” In Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History, edited by Susan E. Alcock, Terrence N. D’Altroy, Kathleen D. Morrison and Carla M. Sinopoli, 70–92. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Sillar, Bill, Emily Dean, and Amelia Pérez Trujillo. 2013. “My State or Yours? Wari ‘Labor Camps’ and Inka Cult of Viracocha at Raqchi, Cuzco, Peru.” Latin American Antiquity 24(1): 21–46. https://doi.org/10.7183/1045-6635.24.1.21

Smith, Monica L. 2015. “Feast and their Failures.” Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 22(4): 1215–1237. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10816-014-9222-y

Spickard, Lynda E. 1983. “The Development of Huari Administrative Architecture.” In Investigations of the Andean Past: Papers from the First Annual Northeast Conference on Andean Archaeology and Ethnohistory, edited by Daniel H. Sandweiss, 136–160. Ithaca: Cornell Latin American Studies Program.

Tomczyk, Weronika and Milosz Giersz. 2017. “Polydactyly Suggesting Local Husbandry of Pre-Columbian Camelids: A Case from Castillo de Huarmey Archaeological Site, Northern Coast of Peru.” International Journal of Paleopathology 16: 40–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpp.2016.11.003

Tomczyk, Weronika, Milosz Giersz, Arkadiusz Soltysiah, George Kamenov and John Krigbaum. 2019. “Patterns of Camelid Management in Wari Empire Reconstructed Using Multiple Stable Isotope Analyses: Evidence from Castillo de Huarmey, Northern Coast of Peru.” Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 11(4): 1307–1324. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-017-0590-6

Torres, Constantino M., and David B. Repke. 2005 Anadenanthera: Visionary Plant of South America. New York: Routledge.

Turner, Bethany L. and Barbara R. Hewitt. 2018. “The Acllacona and Mitmacona: Diet, Ethnicity, and Status.” In Oxford Handbook of the Incas, edited by Sonia Alconini and R. Alan Covey, 263–282. New York: Oxford University Press.

Tripcevich, Nicholas. 2007. Quarries, Caravans, and Routes to Complexity: Prehispanic Obsidian in the South-Central Andes. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Santa Barbara.

Valdez, Lido. 2012. “Molle Beer Production in A Peruvian Central Highland Valley.” Journal of Anthropological Research 68(1): 71–93. https://doi.org/10.3998/jar.0521004.0068.103

Van Buren, Mary. 1996. “Rethinking the Vertical Archipelago: Ethnicity, Exchange, and History in the South Central Andes.” American Anthropologist 98(2): 338–351. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1996.98.2.02a00100

Wernke, Steven A. 2012. “Spatial Network analysis of a Terminal Prehispanic and Early Colonial Settlement in Highland Peru.” Journal of Archaeological Science 39(4): 1111–1122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2011.12.014

Wiessner, Polly. 2002. “The Vines of Complexity: Egalitarian Structures and the Institutionalization of Inequality among the Enga.” Current Anthropology 43(2): 233–269. https://doi.org/10.1086/338301

Williams, Patrick Ryan. 2001. “Cerro Baúl: A Wari Center on the Tiwanaku Frontier.” Latin American Antiquity 12(1): 67–83. https://doi.org/10.2307/971758

———. 2017. “Una perspectiva comparada de los camios Wari y Tiwanaku: los antecendentes del Qhapaq Nañ Incaico.” In Nuevas Tendencias en el Estudio de los Caminos, edited by Sofía Chacaltana, Elizabeth Arkush and Giancarlo Marcone, 30–47. Lima: Ministerio de Cultura, Qhapaq Ñan.

Williams, Patrick Ryan and Donna Nash. 2017. “Religious Ritual and Wari State Expansion.” In Ritual and Archaic States, edited by Joanne M. A. Murphy, 131–156. University Press of Florida, Gainesville. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvx076fd.11

———. 2021. “Consuming Kero: Molle Beer and Wari Social Identity in Andean Peru.” Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 63: 101327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaa.2021.101327

Williams, Patrick Ryan, Donna J. Nash, Joshua M. Henkin and Ruth Ann Armitage. 2019. “Archaeometric Approaches to Defining Sustainable GovernanceL Wari Brewing Traditions and the Building of Political Relationships in Ancient Peru.” Sustainability 11(8): 2333. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11082333

Wolff, Barbara Lee. 2012. Potters, Power and Prestige: Early Intermediate Period and Middle Horizon Ceramic Production at Conchopata, Ayacucho, Peru (A.D. 400–1000). Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Catholic University of America, Washington D.C.

Yee, Gale A. 2017. “‘He Will Take the Best of Your Fields’: Royal Feasts and Rural Extraction.” Journal of Biblical Literature 136(4): 821–838.

Zió?kowski, Mariusz S. and Luis Augusto Belan Franco. 2001. “El Proyecto Arqueologico ‘Condseuyos.’” Andes: Boletín de la Misión Arqueológica Andina 3: 9–23.

Published

2023-02-20

How to Cite

Jennings, J., Alaica, A. K., & Biwer, M. E. (2023). Beer, Drugs and Meat : A Reconsideration of Early Wari Feasting and Statecraft. Archaeology of Food and Foodways, 1(2), 154-177. https://doi.org/10.1558/aff.20801