Statistical Approaches to Small Site Diversity
New Insights from Cretan Legacy Survey Data
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1558/jma.26678Keywords:
Crete, diversity measures, legacy data, Mediterranean surveyAbstract
Over the past fifty years, intensive Mediterranean archaeological surveys have yielded abundant and diachronic archaeological data. Although field methods have been continually debated and refined, the interpretation of survey results has focused primarily on site numbers and site size, with particular interest in reconstructing settlement hierarchies and in tracking episodes of nucleation and dispersal across the landscape. Artifact assemblages are largely used to date sites, while less attention has been devoted to assemblage diversity and site function. This study demonstrates the potential of legacy survey data to frame and answer new research questions via an analysis of 250 small rural sites of the first millennium BC recovered by intensive surveys on Crete from the 1970s through the early 2000s. I show that diachronic patterns of rural settlement in Crete depart strongly from those observed in mainland Greece and also differ between regions. I also reveal pronounced variation in the assemblages present at small sites across the island within Cretan regions and periods. This suggests that we cannot simply interpret all small sites as homogeneous farmsteads. Finally, I discuss the challenges and potential of using diversity measures as an exploratory tool for analyzing legacy survey data. Methods outlined here could be productively applied in other Mediterranean regions.
References
Acheson, P. 1997 Does the ‘economic explanation’ work? Settlement, agriculture and erosion in the territory of Halieis in the late Classical-early Hellenistic period. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 10: 165-90.
Alcock, S.E. 1993 Graecia Capta: The Landscapes of Roman Greece. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Alcock, S.E. 2002 A simple case of exploitation? The helots of Messenia. In P. Cartledge, E.E. Cohen and L. Foxhall (eds.), Money, Labour and Land: Approaches to the Economy of Ancient Greece, 185-99. London: Routledge.
Alcock, S.E., and J.F. Cherry 2004 Introduction. In S.E. Alcock and J.F. Cherry (eds.), Side-by-side Survey: Comparative Regional Studies in the Mediterranean World, 1-9. Oxford: Oxbow.
Alcock, S. E., J.F. Cherry and J.L. Davis 1994 Intensive survey, agricultural practice, and the classical landscape of Greece. In I. Morris (ed.), Classical Greece: Ancient Histories and Modern Archaeologies, 135-68. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ammerman, A.J. 1985 Plow-zone experiments in Calabria, Italy. Journal of Field Archaeology 12: 33-40. https://doi.org/10.1179/009346985791169544
Attema, P.A.J., P. Carafa, W.M. Jongman … R.E. Witcher and N.A. Wouda 2022 The Roman Hinterland Project: integrating archaeological field surveys around Rome and beyond. European Journal of Archaeology 25: 238-58. https://doi.org/10.1017/eaa.2021.51
Baxter, M.J. 2001 Methodological issues in the study of assemblage diversity. American Antiquity 66: 715-25. https://doi.org/10.2307/2694184
Belarte, M.C., J. Canela, J. Morer, O. Cuscó, M. Ocaña, I. Euba and S. Valenzuela-Lamas 2021 Rural settlement in Iron Age Cessetania (northeastern Iberian peninsula): characteristics and socioeconomic role. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 34: 225-51. https://doi.org/10.1558/jma.21980
Betancourt, P., K. Davaras and R. Hope Simpson (eds.) 2005 The Archaeological Survey of Pseira Island II. The Intensive Surface Survey. Philadelphia: INSTAP Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt3fgw9p.6
Binford, L.R. 1980 Willow smoke and dogs’ tails: hunter-gatherer settlement systems and archaeological site formation. American Antiquity 45: 4-20. https://doi.org/10.2307/279653
Bintliff, J. 1982 Settlement patterns, land tenure and social structure: a diachronic model. In S. Shennan and C. Renfrew (eds.), Ranking, Resource and Exchange: Aspects of the Archaeology of Early European Society, 106-11. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bintliff, J. 1997 Regional survey, demography, and the rise of complex societies in the ancient Aegean: core-periphery, neo-Malthusian, and other interpretive models. Journal of Field Archaeology 24: 1-38. https://doi.org/10.1179/jfa.1997.24.1.1
Bintliff, J., and A.M. Snodgrass 1988 Mediterranean survey and the city. Antiquity 62 (234): 57-71. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00073506
Bobrowsky, P.T., and B.F. Ball 1989 The theory and mechanics of ecological diversity in archaeology. In R.D. Leonard and G.T. Jones (eds.), Quantifying Diversity in Archaeology, 4-12. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bowes, K. (ed.) 2020 The Roman Peasant Project 2009-2014: Excavating the Roman Rural Poor. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. https://doi.org/10.9783/9781949057089
Brisart, T. 2011 Un Art Citoyen: Recherches sur l’Orientalisation des Artisanats en Grèce Proto-Archaïque. Brussels: Académie Royale de Belgique.
Brisart, T. 2014 Isolation, austerity, and fancy pottery: acquiring and using overseas imported finewares in 6th- and 5th-century eastern Crete. In O. Pilz and G. Seelentag (eds.), Cultural Practices and Material Culture in Archaic and Classical Crete, 263-84. Berlin: De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110331783.263
Caraher, W.R., R.S. Moore and D.K. Pettegrew 2014 Pyla-Koutsopetria I. Archaeological Survey of an Ancient Coastal Town. Boston: American Schools of Oriental Research. https://doi.org/10.5615/j.ctvj7wksw
Caraher, W.R., D. Nakassis and D.K. Pettegrew 2006 Siteless survey and intensive data collection in an artifact-rich environment: case studies from the eastern Corinthia, Greece. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 19: 7-43. https://doi.org/10.1558/jmea.2006.19.1.7
Charalambidou, X., and C. Morgan 2017 Introduction: interpreting the seventh century BC. In X. Charalambidou and C. Morgan (eds.), Interpreting the Seventh Century BC: Tradition and Innovation, 1-8. Oxford: Archaeopress. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv170x4v6.5
Cherry, J.F. 1983 Frogs round the pond: perspectives on current archaeological projects in the Mediterranean region. In D.R. Keller and D.W. Rupp (eds.), Archaeological Survey in the Mediterranean Area. British Archaeological Reports, International Series 155: 375-416. Oxford: Archaeopress.
Christaller, W. 1966 Central Places in Southern Germany. Trans. C.W. Baskin. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Cloke, C. 2021 Farming on the fringe: diachronic changes in land-use patterns and agricultural strategies in ancient Nemea. Journal of Greek Archaeology 6: 1-25. https://doi.org/10.32028/9781789698886-2
Coldstream, J.N. 1973 Knossos 1951-61: Orientalizing and Archaic pottery from the town. Annual of the British School at Athens 68: 33-63. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0068245400004378
Coldstream, J.N. 1999 Knossos 1951-61: Classical and Hellenistic pottery from the town. Annual of the British School at Athens 94: 321-51. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0068245400000629
Coldstream, J.N., and G.L. Huxley 1999 Knossos: the Archaic gap. Annual of the British School at Athens 94: 289-307. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0068245400000605
Dunnell, R.S., and W.S. Dancy 1983 The siteless survey: a regional scale data collection strategy. Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory 6: 267-87. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-003106-1.50012-2
Duplouy, A. 2019 Le territoire d’Itanos au Ier millénaire av. J.-C. de la naissance de la cité grecque à la conquête romaine. Méthode et résultats de la prospection d’Itanos. Online: https://hal.science/hal-03631619
Eaby, M. 2007 Mortuary Variability in Early Iron Age Cretan Burials. Unpublished PhD dissertation, Department of Classics, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.
Erickson, B. 2010 Crete in Transition: Pottery Styles and Island History in the Archaic and Classical Periods. Hesperia Supplement 45. Princeton, New Jersey: American School of Classical Studies at Athens. https://doi.org/10.2972/j.ctv13nb78k
Erny, G. 2022 Landscapes of Inequality. Social Differentiation in Geometric Through Classical Crete. Unpublished PhD dissertation, Department of Classics, Stanford University, California.
Fentress, E. 2000 What are we counting for? In R. Francovich, H. Patterson and G. Barker (eds.), Extracting Meaning from Ploughsoil Assemblages, 44-52. Oxford: Oxbow.
Flannery, K.V. 1998 The ground plans of archaic states. In J. Marcus and G.M. Feinman (eds.), Archaic States, 15-57. Santa Fe, New Mexico: School of American Research Press.
Forbes, H.A. 2007 Meaning and Identity in a Greek Landscape: An Archaeological Ethnography. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511720284
Fotiadis, M. 1995 Modernity and the past-still-present: politics of time in the birth of regional archaeological projects in Greece. American Journal of Archaeology 99: 59-78. https://doi.org/10.2307/506879
Foxhall, L. 1990 The dependent tenant: land leasing and labour in Italy and Greece. Journal of Roman Studies 80: 97-114. https://doi.org/10.2307/300282
Foxhall, L. 2004 Small, rural farmstead sites in ancient Greece: a material culture analysis. In F. Kolb (ed.), Chora und Polis, 249-70. Munich: Oldenbourg. https://doi.org/10.1524/9783486594577-013
Gagarin, M., and P.J. Perlman 2016 The Laws of Ancient Crete: c. 650-400 BCE. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Gaignerot-Driessen, F. 2016 De l’occupation postpalatiale à la cité-État grecque: le cas du Mirambello (Crète). Leuven: Peeters.
Galanaki, K., C. Papadaki and K. Christakis 2019 -----. ------ 129: 79-87.
Gallimore, S. 2019 An island in crisis? Reconsidering the formation of Roman Crete. American Journal of Archaeology 123: 589-617. https://doi.org/10.3764/aja.123.4.0589
Gallimore, S., S. James, W.R. Caraher and D. Nakassis 2017 To Argos: archaeological survey in the western Argolid, 2014–2016. In D.W. Rupp and J.E. Tomlinson (eds.), From Maple to Olive, 421-38. Athens: Canadian Institute in Greece.
Gilboa, A., Y. Shalev, G. Lehmann, H. Mommsen, B. Erickson, E. Nodarou and D. Ben-Shlomo 2017 Cretan pottery in the Levant in the fifth and fourth centuries B.C.E. and its historical implications. American Journal of Archaeology 121: 559-93. https://doi.org/10.3764/aja.121.4.0559
Given, M. 2022 Towards a post-survey landscape archaeology. In S.W. Manning (ed.), Critical Approaches to Cypriot and Wider Mediterranean Archaeology. Monographs in Mediterranean Archaeology 16: 144-60. Sheffield: Equinox.
Gkiasta, M. 2008 The Historiography of Landscape Research on Crete. Leiden: Leiden University Press. https://doi.org/10.5117/9789087280369
Gouma, M., G.J. van Wijngaarden and S. Soetens 2011 Assessing the effects of geomorphological processes on archaeological densities: a GIS case study on Zakynthos island, Greece. Journal of Archaeological Science 38: 2714-25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2011.06.009
Haggis, D.C. 2004 Review of B.J. Hayden, Reports on the Vrokastro Area, Eastern Crete II. The Settlement History of the Vrokastro Area and Related Studies. Bryn Mawr Classical Review 12.34. Online: http://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2004/2004-12-34.html
Haggis, D.C. 2005 Kavousi I. The Archaeological Survey of the Kavousi Region. Philadelphia: INSTAP Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt3fgv78
Haggis, D.C. 2014 Excavations at Azoria and stratigraphic evidence for the restructuring of Cretan landscapes ca. 600 BCE. In O. Pilz and G. Seelentag (eds.), Cultural Practices and Material Culture in Archaic and Classical Crete, 11-40. Berlin: De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110331783.11
Haggis, D.C., M.S. Mook, R.D. Fitzsimons, C.M. Scarry and L.M. Snyder 2011 The excavation of Archaic houses at Azoria in 2005-2006. Hesperia 80: 431-89. https://doi.org/10.2972/hesperia.80.3.0431
Haggis, D.C., M.S. Mook, C.M. Scarry, L.M. Snyder and W.C. West 2004 Excavations at Azoria, 2002. Hesperia 73: 339-400. https://doi.org/10.2972/hesp.2004.73.3.339
Halstead, P. 2014 Two Oxen Ahead: Pre-Mechanized Farming in the Mediterranean. Chichester, United Kingdom: Wiley-Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118819333
Hawkins, A.L., S.T. Stewart and E.B. Banning 2003 Interobserver bias in enumerated data from archaeological survey. Journal of Archaeological Science 30: 1503-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-4403(03)00051-7
Hayden, B.J. 2004 Reports on the Vrokastro Area, Eastern Crete II. The Settlement History of the Vrokastro Area and Related Studies. University Museum Monographs 119. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology.
Hayden, B.J. 2005 Reports on the Vrokastro Area, Eastern Crete III. The Vrokastro Regional Survey Project: Sites and Pottery. University Museum Monographs 123. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology.
Jameson, M.H. 1994 Class in the ancient Greek countryside. In P. Doukellis and L. Mendoni (eds.), Structures rurales et sociétés antiques, 55-64. Besançon: Université de Franche-Comté.
Johnson, I. 2004 Aoristic analysis: seeds of a new approach to mapping archaeological distributions through time. In K. Ausserer Fischer, W. Börner, M. Goriany and L. Karlhuber-Vöckl (eds.), [Enter the Past]: the E-way into the Four Dimensions of Cultural Heritage. CAA 2003, Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology, 448-52. Oxford: Archaeopress.
Jones, G.T., C. Beck and D.K. Grayson 1989 Measures of diversity and expedient lithic technologies. In R.D. Leonard and G.T. Jones (eds.), Quantifying Diversity in Archaeology, 69-78. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Jones, J.E., A.J. Graham and L.H. Sackett 1973 An Attic country house below the Cave of Pan at Vari. Annual of the British School at Athens 68: 355-452. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0068245400004524
Jones, J.E., L.H. Sackett and A.J. Graham 1962 The Dema House in Attica. Annual of the British School at Athens 57: 75-114. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0068245400013654
Judson, C. 2018 Protogeometric and Geometric Crete. Unpublished PhD dissertation, Department of Classics, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.
Kearns, C. 2022 The Rural Landscapes of Archaic Cyprus. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009071826
Kearns, C., and A. Georgiadou 2021 Rural complexities: comparative investigations at small Iron Age sites in south-central Cyprus. Journal of Field Archaeology 46: 461-79. https://doi.org/10.1080/00934690.2021.1928426
Kintigh, K.W. 1984 Measuring archaeological diversity by comparison with simulated assemblages. American Antiquity 49: 44-54. https://doi.org/10.2307/280511
Knodell, A.R., T.C. Wilkinson, T.P. Leppard and H.A. Orengo 2022 Survey archaeology in the Mediterranean world: regional traditions and contributions to long-term history. Journal of Archaeological Research. 31: 263-329. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10814-022-09175-7
Kotsonas, A. 2002 The rise of the polis in central Crete. 3: 37-74. https://doi.org/10.12681/eul.32742
Kotsonas, A. 2021 Making Cretan cities: urbanization, demography and economies of production in the Early Iron Age and the Archaic period. In M. Gleba, B. Marín-Aguilera and B. Dimova (eds.), Making Cities: Economies of Production and Urbanization in Mediterranean Europe, 1000-500 BCE, 57-76. Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research.
Lefèvre-Novaro, D. 2014 Du massif de l’Ida aux pentes du mont Diktè: peuples, territoires et communautés en Messara, Crète, du XIIIe au VIIe siècle av. J.-C. Paris: De Boccard. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv327fw1t
Leppard, T.P., and A.R. Knodell 2018 Retrospect and prospect in Mediterranean archaeology. In A.R. Knodell and T.P. Leppard (eds.), Regional Approaches to Society and Complexity: Studies in Honor of John F. Cherry. Monographs in Mediterranean Archaeology 15: 320-37. Sheffield: Equinox.
McHugh, M. 2017 The Ancient Greek Farmstead. Oxford: Oxbow. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvh1dsmr
Mendoni, L. 1994 The organisation of the countryside in Kea. In P. Doukellis and L. Mendoni (eds.), Structures Rurales et Sociétés Antiques, 147-62. Besançon: Université de Franche-Comté.
Meyer, N. 2022 Finding sites in Mediterranean survey. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 35: 143-68. https://doi.org/10.1558/jma.25520
Morris, I. 1998 Archaeology and Archaic Greek history. In N. Fisher and H. van Wees (eds.), Archaic Greece: New Approaches and New Evidence, 1-92. London: Duckworth. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvvn94k.6
Morris, S.P. 1992 Daidalos and the Origins of Greek Art. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780691241944
Moody, J. 1987 The Environmental and Cultural Prehistory of the Khania Region of West Crete: Neolithic through Late Minoan III. Unpublished PhD dissertation, Department of Classics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.
Murray, P.M., and C. Chang 1981 An ethnoarchaeological study of a contemporary herder’s site. Journal of Field Archaeology 8: 372-81.
Nowicki, K. 2000 Defensible Sites in Crete c. 1200-800 B.C: LM IIIB/IIIC through Early Geometric. Aegaeum 21. Liège: Université de Liège.
Osborne, R. 1992 Is it a farm? The definition of agricultural sites and settlements in ancient Greece. In B. Wells (ed.), Agriculture in Ancient Greece, 21-25. Stockholm: Paul Åström’s Förlag.
Paynter, R. 1982 Models of Spatial Inequality: Settlement Patterns in Historical Archeology. New York: Academic Press.
Perlman, P.J. 2004 Tinker, tailor, soldier, sailor: the economies of Archaic Eleutherna, Crete. Classical Antiquity 23: 95-137. https://doi.org/10.1525/ca.2004.23.1.95
Pettegrew, D.K. 2001 Chasing the Classical farmstead: assessing the formation and signature of rural settlement in Greek landscape archaeology. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 14: 189-209. https://doi.org/10.1558/jmea.v14i2.189
Plog, S., and M. Hegmon 1993 The sample size-richness relation: the relevance of research questions, sampling strategies, and behavioral variation. American Antiquity 58: 489-96. https://doi.org/10.2307/282108
Pollard, D. 2022 Between the Mountains and the Sea: Landscapes of Settlement, Subsistence and Funerary Practice in Later Bronze Age and Iron Age Crete. Unpublished PhD dissertation, Institute of Archaeology, University College London.
Prent, M. 1996 The 6th century B.C. in Crete: the best candidate for being a Dark Age. In M. Maaskant-Kleibrink and M. Vink (eds), Debating Dark Ages, 35-46. Groningen: Archaeological Institute, Groningen University.
Prent, M. 2005 Cretan Sanctuaries and Cults: Continuity and Change from Late Minoan IIIC to the Archaic Period. Leiden: Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789047406907
Raab, H.A. 2001 Rural Settlement in Hellenistic and Roman Crete: The Akrotiri Peninsula. British Archaeological Reports, International Series 984. Oxford: Archaeopress. https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841712703
Ringrose, T.J. 1993 Diversity indices and archaeology. In J. Andresen, T. Madsen and I. Scollar (eds.), Computing the Past: Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology, 279-86. Aarhus: Aarhus University Press.
Roppa, A., and P. van Dommelen 2012 Rural settlement and land-use in Punic and Roman Republican Sardinia. Journal of Roman Archaeology 25: 49-68. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1047759400001136
Schiffer, M. 1987 Formation Processes of the Archaeological Record. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press
Schörner, G. 2012 Comparing surface, topsoil, and subsurface ceramic assemblages: the case of Il Monte, San Gimignano. In G. Schörner and P.A.J. Attema (eds.), Comparative Issues in the Archaeology of the Roman Rural Landscape: Site Classification Between Survey, Excavation and Historical Categories. Journal of Roman Archaeology, Supplementary Series 88: 31-42. Portsmouth, Rhode Island: Journal of Roman Archaeology.
Sjögren, L. 2003 Cretan Locations: Discerning Site Variations in Iron Age and Archaic Crete (800-500 B.C.). British Archaeological Reports, International Series 1185. Oxford: Archaeopress. https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841715513
Stewart, D.R. 2013 Reading the Landscapes of the Rural Peloponnese: Landscape Change and Regional Variation in an Early ‘Provincial’ Setting. British Archaeological Reports, International Series 2504. Oxford: Archaeopress. https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407311203
Sutton, S.B. 2000 Introduction: past and present in rural Greece. In S.B. Sutton and K.W. Adams (eds.), Contingent Countryside: Settlement, Economy, and Land Use in the Southern Argolid Since 1700, 1-24. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.
Tartaron, T.F., T.E. Gregory, D.J. Pullen … D.K. Pettegrew and D. Nakassis 2006 The Eastern Korinthia Archaeological Survey: integrated methods for a dynamic landscape. Hesperia 75: 453-523. https://doi.org/10.2972/hesp.75.4.453
Terrenato, N. 2004 Sample size matters! The paradox of global trends and local surveys. In S.E. Alcock and J.F. Cherry (eds.), Side-by-Side Survey: Comparative Regional Studies in the Mediterranean World, 36-48. Oxford: Oxbow.
Vionis, A. K., and G. Papantoniou 2019 Central Place Theory reloaded and revised: political economy and landscape dynamics in the longue durée. Land 8 (2): 36. https://doi.org/10.3390/land8020036
Wallace, S. 2010 Ancient Crete: From Successful Collapse to Democracy’s Alternatives, Twelfth to Fifth Centuries BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Watrous, L.V. 1982 Lasithi: A History of Settlement on a Highland Plain in Crete. Hesperia Supplement 18. Princeton, New Jersey: American School of Classical Studies at Athens. https://doi.org/10.2307/1353935
Watrous, L.V., M.D. Buell, E. Kokinou … A. Hiemroth and B. Erickson 2017 The Galatas Survey: Socio-Economic and Political Development of a Contested Territory in Central Crete During the Neolithic to Ottoman Periods. Philadelphia: INSTAP Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1wrpwkj
Watrous, L.V., D. Hadzi-Vallianou, H. Blitzer and J. Bennett 2004 The Plain of Phaistos: Cycles of Social Complexity in the Mesara Region of Crete. Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvhhhfs7
Watrous, L.V., D. Haggis, K. Nowicki, N. Vogeikoff-Brogan, M. Schultz, J. Hayes, A. Kossyva and E. Zangger 2012 Archaeological Survey of the Gournia Landscape: A Regional History of the Mirabello Bay, Crete, in Antiquity. Philadelphia: INSTAP Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt3fgvh4
Whitelaw, T. 2000 Reconstructing a classical landscape with figures: some interpretive explorations in north-west Keos. In R. Francovich, H. Patterson and G. Barker (eds.), Extracting Meaning from Ploughsoil Assemblages, 227-43. Oxford: Oxbow.
Whitley, J. 2013 The Cretan Orientalizing: a comparative perspective. In W.D. Niemeier, O. Pilz and I. Kaiser (eds.), Kreta in der Geometrischen und Archaischen Zeit, 409-26. Munich: Hirmer.
Willetts, R.F. 1965 Ancient Crete: A Social History from Early Times until the Roman Occupation. London: Routledge and Paul.
Winther-Jacobsen, K. 2010a The Classical farmstead revisited: activity differentiation based on a ceramic use-typology. Annual of the British School at Athens 105: 269-90. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0068245400000411
Winther-Jacobsen, K. 2010b From Pots to People: A Ceramic Approach to the Archaeological Interpretation of Ploughsoil Assemblages in Late Roman Cyprus. Leuven: Peeters.
Witcher, R. 2006 Broken pots and meaningless dots? Surveying the rural landscapes of Roman Italy. Papers of the British School at Rome 74: 39-72. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0068246200003226
Wright, H.T. 1977 Recent research on the origin of the state. Annual Review of Anthropology 6: 379-97. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.an.06.100177.002115
Zuchtriegel, G. 2018 Colonization and Subalternity in Classical Greece: Experience of the Nonelite Population. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108292849