Standard language ideology in an English-medium Irish secondary school
Conflicting perspectives on the discouragement of nonstandard language
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1558/jld.20487Keywords:
Teenagers, language ideologies, standard language ideology, raciolinguisticsAbstract
The current paper aims to address how one English-medium school functions from the different perspectives within the school: the principal, student/teacher classroom interaction and the students. This approach allows us to see the power differential of the different stakeholders in a school and how iconisation, fractal recursivity, and erasure affect teenagers in Dublin. This paper presents interview data with a principal and the students in a secondary school. Taking a qualitative approach to these data, I show that standard language ideology is linked with economic disadvantage. The school principal’s approach to identifying, problematising and seeking to eliminate certain types of nonstandard language in the school reflects a standard language ideology and is consistent with a raciolinguistic approach to linguistic discrimination. The data suggest that the students themselves take a more nuanced approach.
References
Adger, C. T., Snow, C. E., and Christian, D. (eds) (2018) What Teachers Need to Know About Language. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. https://doi.org/10.21832/adger0186
Alim, H. S., Rickford, J. R., and Ball, A. F. (eds) (2016) Raciolinguistics: How Language Shapes Our Ideas About Race. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190625696.001.0001
Anderson, K. T. (2015) The discursive construction of lower-tracked students: ideologies of meritocracy and the politics of education. Education Policy Analysis Archives 23(110): 1–26. https://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.v23.2141
Andronis, M.A. (2004) Iconization, fractal recursivity, and erasure: Linguistic ideologies and standardization in Quichua-speaking Ecuador. Texas Linguistic Forum 47: 263–269.
Blommaert, J. (1999) The debate is open. In J. Blommaert (ed.) Language Ideological Debates 1–38. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110808049.1
Blommaert, J. (2006) Language Policy and National Identity. An Introduction to Language Policy. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Bonacina-Pugh, F. (2012) Researching ‘practiced language policies’: insights from conversation analysis. Language Policy 11: 213–234. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10993-012-9243-x
Bucholtz, M. and Hall, K. (2004) Language and identity. In Alessandro Duranti (ed.) A Companion to Linguistic Anthropology 369–394. Oxford: Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470996522.ch16
Cheney, G. (2005) Ireland Education Report. Washington, DC: National Center on Education and The Economy.
Craig, H. K. and Washington, J. A. (2004) Grade-related changes in the production of African-American English. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 47(2): 450–463.
Creese, A. (2010) Two-teacher classrooms, personalized learning and the inclusion paradigm in the United Kingdom: What’s in it for learners of EAL? In K. Menken and O. García (eds) Negotiating Language Policies in Schools. Educators as Policymakers 32–51. London: Routledge.
Cushing, I. (2019) Prescriptivism, linguicism and pedagogical coercion in primary school UK curriculum policy. English Teaching: Practice & Critique 19(1): 35–47. https://doi.org/10.1108/etpc-05-2019-0063
Cushing, I. (2020) The policy and policing of language in schools. Language in Society 49(3): 425–50.
Cushing, I. (2021) ‘Say it like the Queen’: the standard language ideology and language policy making in English primary schools. Language, Culture and Curriculum 34(3): 321–336. https://doi.org/10.1080/07908318.2020.1840578
Darmody, M. and Daly, T. (2015) Attitudes towards the Irish Language on the Island of Ireland. Dublin: Foras na Gaeilge and ESRI.
Department of Education and Science. (2005) DEIS: (Delivering Equality Of Opportunity In Schools) An Action Plan for Educational Inclusion. Available at: https://www.education.ie/en/Publications/Policy-Reports/deis_action_plan_on_educational_inclusion.pdf
Department of Education and Skills. (2019) Cumasú: Empowering through learning. Action Plan for Education 2019. Available at: https://assets.gov.ie/24356/56207ef5c4ea4a9896ca0c5caed10579.pdf.
Denny, E. (2015) Transition from second level and further education to higher education. Focused Research Project #6. Dublin: National Forum for the Enhancement of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education. Available at: https://www.teachingandlearning.ie/wp-content/uploads/NF-2015-Transition-from-Second-Level-and-Further-Education-to-Higher-Education.pdf
Edwards, J. (1977) The speech of disadvantaged Dublin children. Language Problems and Language Planning 1: 65–72. https://doi.org/10.1075/lplp.1.2.02edw
Edwards, J. (2009) Language and Identity: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Fairclough, N. (2004) Analysing Discourse: Textual Analysis for Social Research. London: Routledge.
Farr, M. and Song, J. (2011) Language ideologies and policies: multilingualism and education. Language and Linguistics Compass 5(9): 650–65.
Fitzsimmons-Doolan, S., Palmer, D., and Henderson, K. (2017) Educator language ideologies and a top-down dual language program. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 20(6): 704–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2015.1071776
Flores, N. and Rosa, J. (2015) Undoing appropriateness: Raciolinguistic ideologies and language diversity in education. Harvard Educational Review 85(2): 149–171. https://doi.org/10.17763/0017-8055.85.2.149
Gates, S. M. and Ilbury, C. (2019) Standard language ideology and the non-standard adolescent speaker. In C. Wright, L. Harvey, and J. Simpson (eds) Voices and Practices in Applied Linguistics: Diversifying a Discipline 109–125. York: White Rose University Press.
Goossens, S. (2019) Embracing multilingualism, experiencing old tensions. Promoting and problematising language at a self-declared multilingual school. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development.
Guest, G., MacQueen, K. M. and Namey, E. E. (2012) Applied Thematic Analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Haddix, M. (2008) Beyond sociolinguistics: Towards a critical approach to cultural and linguistic diversity in teacher education. Language and Education 22(5): 254–270. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500780802152648
Haig, Y. and Oliver, R. (2003) Language variation and education: teachers’ perceptions. Language and Education 17(4): 266–280.
Hallett, J. (2020) Teachers’ development of a socially-stigmatized dialect. Language and Education 34(6): 520–534. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500782.2020.1797769
Harju-Luukkainen, H., Vettenranta, J., Kanervio, P. and Pulkkinen, S. (2014) Principals’ perceptions for Finnish- and Swedish-language schools in Finland: An analysis of school-level indices from programme for international student assessment 2009. Leadership and Policy in Schools 13(3): 334–351.
Hélot, C. (2010) “Tu Sais Bien Parler Maîtresse!”: Negotiating languages other than French in the primary classroom in France. In K. Menken and O. García (eds) Negotiating Language Policies in Schools. Educators as Policymakers 52–71. London: Routledge.
Hickey, R. (2007) Irish English: History and Present-day Forms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1360674311000165
Hickey, R. (2016) English in Ireland: development and varieties. In R. Hickey (ed.) Sociolinguistics in Ireland 3–40. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Irvine, J. (1989) When talk isn’t cheap: Language and political economy. American Ethnologist 16(2): 248–267. https://doi.org/10.1525/ae.1989.16.2.02a00040
Irvine, J. and Gal, S. (2000) Language ideology and linguistic differentiation. In Paul Kroskrity (ed.) Regimes of Language: Ideologies, Polities, and Identities: 35–84. Santa Fe: School of American Research Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0047404502222186
Jaffe, A. (1999) Locating power: Corsican translators and their critics. In J. Blommaert (ed) Language Ideological Debates 39–68. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
Janks, H. (2004) The access paradox. Literacy Learning: The Middle Years 12(1): 33–42.
Jaspers, J. and Rosiers, K. (2019) Soft power: teachers’ friendly implementation of a severe monolingual policy. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development.
Johnson, D. C. and Freeman, R. (2010) Appropriating language policy on the local level: Working the spaces for bilingual education. In K. Menken and O. García (eds) Negotiating Language Policies in Schools. Educators as Policymakers 13–31. London: Routledge.
Kallen, J. (2013) Irish English Volume 2: The Republic of Ireland. Berlin: de Gruyter Mouton.
Kelly-Holmes, H. and Milani, T. (2011) Thematising multilingualism in the media. Journal of Language and Politics 10(4): 467–489. https://doi.org/10.1075/jlp.10.4.01kel
Kircher, R. and Fox, S. (2019) Attitudes towards multicultural London English: implications for attitude theory and language planning. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 40(10): 847–864. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2019.1577869
Kirk, J. (2011) What is Irish Standard English?: The International Corpus of English-Ireland can be used to understand how standard English manifests itself in both the north and south of Ireland. English Today 27(2): 32–38. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0266078411000186
Labov, W. (1963) The social motivation of a sound change. Word 19: 273–309.
Labov, W. (1969) The logic of nonstandard English. Georgetown Monographs in Language and Linguistics 22: 1–44.
Levey, S. (2012) Understanding children’s non-standard spoken English: a perspective from variationist sociolinguistics. Language and Education 26(5): 405–421. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500782.2011.651144
Lippi-Green, R. (1997) English with an Accent: Language, Ideology and Discrimination in the United States. London: Routledge.
Lucek, S. (forthcoming) Perceptions of Irish English. In R. Hickey (ed) Oxford Handbook of Irish English. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Lucek, S. and Garnett, V. (2020) Perceptions of linguistic identity among Irish English speakers. In C Amador-Moreno and R. Hickey (eds) Irish Identities – Sociolinguistic Perspectives 104–130. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501507687-006
Lynch, K. and Crean, M. (2018) Economic inequality and class privilege in education: Why equality of economic condition is essential for equality of opportunity. In J. Harford (ed) Education for All?: The Legacy of Free Post-Primary Education in Ireland 139–160. Oxford: Peter Lang.
MacLeod, B. (2015) A critical evaluation of two approaches to defining perceptual salience. Ampersand 2: 83–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amper.2015.07.001
Mallinson, C. and Charity Hudley, A. (2010) Communicating about communication: Multidisciplinary approaches to educating educators about language variation. Language and Linguistics Compass 4(4): 245–257. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-818x.2010.00190.x
McBee Orzulak, M. (2015) Disinviting deficit ideologies: Beyond “That’s Standard,” “That’s Racist,” and “That’s Your Mother Tongue”. Research in the Teaching of English 50(2): 176–198.
Menken, K. and García, O. (eds) (2010) Negotiating Language Policies in Schools. Educators as Policymakers. London: Routledge.
Mercille, J. and Murphy, E. (2015) The neoliberalization of Irish higher education under austerity. Critical Sociology 43(3): 1–17.
Metz, M. (2018) Exploring the complexity of high school students’ beliefs about language variation. Linguistics and Education 45: 10–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.linged.2018.02.003
Milroy, J. and Milroy, L. (1999) Authority and Language (3rd edn). London: Routledge.
Mordaunt, O. G. (2011) Bidialectalism in the classroom: the case of African-American English. Language, Culture and Curriculum 24(1): 77–87.
Morgan, M. (2009) Foreword: Just take me as I am. In S. Lanehart (ed.) African American Women’s Language: Discourse, Education, and Identity xiii–xxiii. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Press.
Ó Murchadha, N. (2013) Authenticity, authority and prestige: Teenagers’ perceptions of variation in spoken Irish. In T. Kristiansen and S. Grondelaers (eds) Experimental Studies of Changing Language Standards in Contemporary Europe 71–96. Oslo: Novus.
Ó Murchadha, N. and Flynn, C. (2018) Language educators’ regard for variation in late modernity: Perceptions of linguistic variation in minority contexts. Journal of Sociolinguistics 22(3): 288–311.
O Riagain, P. (1997) Language Policy and Social Reproduction: Ireland 1893–1993. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
O’Rourke, B. and Walsh, J. (2015) New speakers of Irish: shifting boundaries across time and space. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 231: 63–83.
Pobal, (no date) https://maps.pobal.ie/WebApps/DeprivationIndices/index.html.
Podesva, R. J. and Callier, P. (2015) Voice quality and identity. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 35: 173–194. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0267190514000270
Rampton, B. (2005) Crossing: Language & Ethnicity among Adolescents (2nd edn). Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.
Reaser, J., Adger, C.T., Wolfram, W., and Christian, D. (2017) Dialects at School: Educating Linguistically Diverse Students. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315772622
Rosa, J. D. (2016) Standardization, racialization, languagelessness: Raciolinguistic ideologies across communicative contexts. Journal of Linguistic Anthropology 26(2): 162–183. https://doi.org/10.1111/jola.12116
Rosa, J. and Flores, N. (2017) Unsettling race and language: Toward a raciolinguistic perspective. Language in Society 46: 621–647. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0047404517000562
Rotter, C. (2019) Cognitive categorisations of language: how EFL students’ (mis-)identifications of three British accents engender stereotypic attributions. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development.
Rumsey, A. (1990) Wording, meaning and linguistic ideology. American Anthropologist 92: 346–361. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1990.92.2.02a00060
Schieffelin, B., Kroskrity, P. and Woolard, K. (eds) (1992) Special issue of pragmatics: Language ideologies. Pragmatics 3(2): 235–449. https://doi.org/10.1075/prag.2.3
Selleck, C. (2013) Inclusive policy and exclusionary practice in secondary education in Wales. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 16(1): 20–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2012.676622
Silverstein, M. (1979) Language structure and linguistic ideology. In R. Clyne, W. Hanks and C. Hofbauer (eds) The Elements: A Parasession on Linguistic Units and Levels 192–247. Chicago: Chicago Linguistic Society.
Snell, J. (2013) Dialect, interaction and class positioning at school: from deficit to difference to repertoire. Language and Education 27(2): 110–128. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500782.2012.760584
Snell, J. and Andrews, R. (2017) To what extent does a regional dialect and accent impact on the development of reading and writing skills? Cambridge Journal of Education 47(3): 297–313. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305764x.2016.1159660
Spencer, S., Clegg, J. and Stackhouse, J. (2013) Language, social class and education: listening to adolescents’ perceptions. Language and Education 27(2): 129–143.
Spolsky, B. (2004) Language Policy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Sterzuk, A. (2015) The standard remains the same: language standardisation, race and othering in higher education. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 36(1) 53–66.
Trudgill, P. (1975) Accent, Dialect and the School. London: Hodder Arnold.
Weaver, M. (2019) “I still think there’s a need for proper, academic, Standard English”: Examining a teacher’s negotiation of multiple language ideologies. Linguistics and Education 49: 41–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.linged.2018.12.005
Willoughby, L., Starks, D. and Taylor-Leech, K. (2015) What their friends say about the way they talk: the metalanguage of pre-adolescent and adolescent Australians. Language Awareness 24(1): 84–100. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658416.2014.977387
Wolfram, W. and Christian, D. (1989) Dialects and Education: Issues and Answers. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.
Woolard, K. (1992) Language ideology: Issues and approaches. Pragmatics 3(2): 235–249.
Woolard, K. (2008) Language and identity choice in Catalonia: The interplay of contrasting ideologies of linguistic authority. In K. Suselbeck, U. Muhlschlegel and P. Masson Lengua, nacion e identidad. La regulacion del plurilinguismo en Espana y America Latina 303–323. Madrid: Iberoamericana Editorial.