A framework for identifying early writing development
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1558/wap.21467Keywords:
Student text, Writing development, Digitalisation, Lower primary school, Denmark, large-scaleAbstract
In this article, we present a novel framework for identifying young students’ writing development in the first years of primary school (age 6–8 years). It was developed to analyse a large number of student texts (n = 803), all in the format of digitised books, as part of the large-scale Danish research project titled Teaching Platform for Developing and Automatically Tracking Early Stage Literacy Skills (ATEL, 2018–2023). In this project, based on a text-oriented model of writing, we aim to gain insights into less considered dimensions of emergent writing. Specifically, we consider how young students construct sentences and expand their meaning-making repertoires in this regard, as well as how they tie a whole text together and begin to express interpersonal meaning. In developing the framework, we took inspiration from both formal and functional linguistic approaches to young students’ writing development and constructed a comprehensive framework to examine the first steps into ways of communicating through writing in school. Furthermore, through a theory-and data-driven process, we developed the framework to suit emergent writing in the educational and language context in Denmark. In addition to presenting the framework in this article, we discuss its limitations and potentials for research and practice.
References
Alamargot, D., & Fayol, M. (2009). Modelling the development of written composition. In R. Beard, D. Myhill & M. Nystrand (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of writing development (pp. 23–47). SAGE Publications Ltd.
Andersen, T. H., & Holsting, A. E. M. (2015). Teksten i grammatikken [The text in the grammar]. Syddansk Universitetsforlag.
Andersen, T. H., & Smedegaard, F. (2005). Hvad er meningen? [What is the meaning?]. Syddansk Universitetsforlag.
Bazerman, C., Graham, S., Applebee, A., Matsuda, P., Berninger, V., Murphy, S., Brandt, D., Rowe, D. W., & Schleppegrell, M. (2017). Taking the long view on writing development. Research in the Teaching of English, 51(3), 351–360.
Bednarek, M. (2008). Emotion talk across corpora. Palgrave MacMillan.
Bereiter, C. (1980). Development in writing. In W. Gregg & E. R. Steinberg (Eds.), Cognitive processes in writing (pp. 73–93). Erlbaum.
Björkvall, A. (2012). Artefakters betydelsepotentialer. En presentation av den sociosemiotiske etnografin som teori och metod [The meaning potential of artefacts. A presentation of social semiotic ethnography as theory and method]. In T. H. Andersen & M. Boeriis (Eds.), Nordisk socialsemiotik. Syddansk Universitetsforlag.
Bremholm, J., Kabel, K., Bundsgaard, J., & Berthelsen, U. D. (2020). Manual for analytisk kodning af elevtekster [ATEL working paper]. School of Education, Aarhus University.
Bremholm, J., Bundsgaard, J., & Kabel, K. (2022). Proficiency levels for early writing development. Writing & Pedagogy, 13(1–3), 121–154. https://doi.org/10.1558/wap.21490
Bundsgaard, J. (2016). Kompetencetest i Hitte på-projektet [Assessing competencies in the ‘Hitte på’ project]. Nationalt Videncenter for Læsning.
Bundsgaard, J., Kabel, K., & Bremholm, J. (2022). Validating scales of early development of writing skills. Writing & Pedagogy, 13(1–3), 89–120. https://doi.org/10.1558/wap.21491
Christie, F. (2012). Language education throughout the school years: A functional perspective. Wiley-Blackwell.
Christie, F., & Derewianka, B. (2008). School discourse: Learning to write across the years of schooling. Continuum.
Crossley, S. A. (2020). Linguistic features in writing quality and development. An overview. Journal of Writing Research, 11(3), 415–443. https://doi.org/10.17239/jowr-2020.11.03.01
Diderichsen, P. (1946). Elementær dansk grammatik [Elementary Danish grammar]. Gyldendal.
Donahue, C., & Lillis, T. (2014). Models of writing and text production. In E.-M. Jakobs & D. P. Perrin (Eds.), Handbook of writing and text production (pp. 55–78). De Gruyter.
Elbro, C. (2005). Literacy acquisition in Danish: A deep orthography in cross-linguistic light. In R. Malatesha Joshi & P. G. Aaron (Eds.), Handbook of orthography and literacy (pp. 31–46). Routledge.
Evensen, L. S. (1997). Å skrive seg stor: Utviking av koherens og social identitet i tidlig skriving [To write one self bigger: Development of coherence and social identity in early writing]. In L. S. Evensen & T. L. Hoel (Eds.), Skriveteorier og skolepraksis (pp. 155–178). LNU/Cappelen Akademisk Forlag.
Fillmore, C. J. (1968). The case for case. In E. Bach & R. Harms (Eds.), Universals in linguistic theory (pp. 1–88). Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Folkeryd, J. W. (2006). Writing with an attitude: Appraisal and student texts in the school subject of Swedish. PhD Dissertation. Uppsala University.
Gee, J. P. (1999). The new literacy studies: From ‘socially situated’ to the work of the social. In Situated literacies: Reading and writing in context (pp. 180–196). Routledge.
Gentry, J. R. (1982). An analysis of developmental spelling in GNYS AT WRK. The Reading Teacher, 1982(36), 192–200.
Graham, S., Gillespie, A., & McKeown, D. (2013). Writing: Importance, development, and instruction. Read Writ, 26, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-012-9395-2
Hagtvet, B. E. (2004). Sprogstimulering, tale og skrift i førskolealderen [Language development, speech and writing in pre-school]. Alinea.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1978). Language as social semiotic: The social interpretation of language and meaning (Reprint ed.). Edward Arnold.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1993). Towards a language-based theory of learning. Linguistics and Education, 5(2), 93–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/0898-5898(93)90026-7
Halliday, M. A. K. (2002). Text as semantic choice in social contexts (1977). In J. J. Webster (Ed.), Linguistic studies of text and discourse (pp. 22–84). Continuum. (Original work published 1977)
Halliday, M. A. K., & Hasan, R. (1976). Cohesion in English. Longman.
Halliday, M. A. K., & Matthiessen, M. I. M. (2004). An introduction to functional grammar (3rd ed.). Hodder Education.
Hansen, E., & Heltoft, L. (2011). Grammatik over det Danske Sprog [Danish language grammar]. Det Danske Sprog og Litteraturselskab & Syddansk Universitetsforlag.
Harmey, S. J., & Wilkinson, I. A. G. (2019). A critical review of the logics of inquiry in studies of early writing development. Journal of Writing Research, 11(1), 41–78. https://doi.org/10.17239/jowr-2019.11.01.02
Harpin, W. (1976). The second ‘R’: Writing development in the junior school. Allen & Unwin.
Hasan, R. (2016 [2001]). Wherefore context?: The ontogenesis of context in the system and process of language. In J. J. Webster (Ed.), Context in the system and process of language (pp. 95–130). Equinox.
Hayes, J. R. (2012). Modeling and remodeling writing. Written Communication, 29(3), 369–388. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741088312451260
Holmberg, P. (2015). Texten i praktiken: Ett bidrag till förståelsen av den skrivna textens kontext [Text in practice: A contribution to the understanding of the context of the written text]. In G. Kvåle, E. Maagerø & A. Veum (Eds.), Kontekst, språk og multimodalitet: Nyere socialsemiotiske perspektiver (pp. 9–24). Fagbokforlaget.
Hunt, K. W. (1965). Grammatical structures written at three grade levels. National Council of Teachers of English.
Hunt, K. W. (1970). Syntactic maturity in school children and adults. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 35(1), 1–61.
Hyland, K. (2002). Teaching and researching writing. Longman.
Jeffrey, J. V., Elf, N., Skar, G. B., & Wilcox, K. C. (2019). Writing development and education standards in cross-national perspective. Writing & Pedagogy, 10(3), 1–38. https://doi.org/10.1558/wap.34587
Kabel, K., Berthelsen, U. D., Bremholm, J., & Bundsgaard, J. (2020). Teoretisk arbejdspapir: Analysemodel til scoring af elevtekster [ATEL working paper]. School of Education, Aarhus University.
Korsgaard, K., Vitger, M., & Hannibal, S. (2015). Opdagende skrivning – en vej ind i læsningen [Explorative writing – a pathway to reading]. Dansklærerforeningen.
Kress, G. (1982). Learning to write. Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Kress, G. (1997). Before writing: Rethinking the paths to literacy. Routledge.
Krogh, E., & Jakobsen, K. S. (Eds.). (2019). Understanding young people’s writing development. Routledge.
Liberg, C. (1990). Learning to read and write (Reports from Uppsala University Linguistics No. 20). Department of Linguistics, Uppsala University.
Loban, W. (1976). Language development. National Council of Teachers of English.
Macken-Horarik, M. (2006). Hierarchies in diversities: What students’ examined responses tell us about literacy practices in contemporary school English. Australian Journal of Language and Literacy, 29(1), 52–78. https://search.informit.org/doi/10.3316/ielapa.063556472174885
Macken-Horarik, M. (2020). Tracking and mentoring semogenesis in boundary students. In N. Elf, T. Høegh, K. Kabel, E. Krogh, A. Piekut & H. Rørbech (Eds.), Grænsegængere og grænsedragninger i nordiske modersmålsfag (pp. 43–84). Syddansk Universitetsforlag.
Macken-Horarik, M., & Isaac, A. (2014). Appraising appraisal. In G. Thompson & L. Alba-Juez (Eds.), Evaluation in context (pp. 67–92). John Benjamins.
Martin, J. R. (1992). English text: System and structure. John Benjamins.
Martin, J. R., & White, P. R. R. (2005). The language of evaluation: Appraisal in English. Palgrave Macmillan.
McGee, L. M., & Richgels, D. J. (2000). Literacy’s beginnings: Supporting young readers and writers (3rd edition). Allyn and Bacon.
Ministry of Children and Education (2019a). Børnehaveklassen. Fælles Mål [Year 0. Common Standards]. http://www.emu.dk
Ministry of Children and Education (2019b). Faghæfte for dansk [National
curriculum for Danish L1]. Retrieved on 1 September 2021 from: http://www.emu.dkMulvad, R. (2009). Sprog i skole: Læseudviklende undervisning i alle fag [Language in school: Reading developing teaching in all school subjects]. Alinea.
Myhill, D. (2008). Towards a linguistic model of sentence development in writing. Language and Education, 22(5), 271–288. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500780802152655
Myhill, D. (2009). Becoming a designer: Trajectories of linguistic development. In R. Beard, D. Myhill & M. Nystrand (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of writing development (pp. 402–414). SAGE Publications Ltd. http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9780857021069.n28
Myhill, D., Jones, S., Lines, H., & Watson, A. (2012). Re-thinking grammar: The impact of embedded grammar teaching on students writing and students’ metalinguistic understanding. Research Papers in Education, 27, 139–166. https://doi.org/10.1080/02671522.2011.637640
Nikolajeva, M., & Scott, C. (2006). How picturebooks work. Routledge.
Perera, K. (1984). Children’s writing and reading: Analysing classroom language. Blackwell in association with Deutsch.
Read, C. (1986). Children’s creative spelling. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429488924
Rothery, J., & Stenglin, M. (2000). Interpreting literature: The role of appraisal. In L. Unsworth (Ed.), Researching language in schools and communities (pp. 222–244). Cassell.
Rowe, D. W. (2008). Development of writing abilities in childhood. In C. Bazerman (Ed.), Handbook of research on writing (pp. 491–515). Lawrence Erlbaum.
Sandiford, C., & Macken-Horarik, M. (2020). Changing stories: Linguistically-informed assessment of development in narrative writing. Assessing Writing, 45, 100471. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2020.100471
Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (1987). Knowledge telling and knowledge transforming in written composition. In S. Rosenberg (Ed.), Advances in applied psycholinguistics (pp. 142–175). Cambridge University Press.
Schleppegrell, M. (2001). Linguistic features of the language of schooling. Linguistics and Education, 12(4), 431–459. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0898-5898(01)00073-0
Schleppegrell, M. (2004). The language of schooling. Lawrence Erlbaum.
Schultz, K., & Fecho, B. (2000). Society’s child: Social context and writing development. Educational Psychologist, 35(1), 51–62. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3501_6
Street, B. (1984). Literacy in theory and practice. Cambridge University Press.
Tavory, I., & Timmermans, S. (2014). Abductive analysis. Theorizing qualitative research. University of Chicago Press.
Thompson, G. (2014). AFFECT and emotion, target-value mismatches, and Russian dolls: Refining the APPRAISAL model. In G. Thompson & L. Alba-Juez (Eds.), Evaluation in context (pp. 47–66). John Benjamins.
Veber, A.-M. (2016). God, bædre, best: Om ortografisk viden og ortografisk indlæring hos danske børn på skolens begynder- og mellemtrin [Good, better, best: Children’s orthographic knowledge and orthographic learning at primary level]. Doctoral Dissertation. University of Copenhagen.
White, P. R. R. (2003). Beyond modality and hedging: A dialogic view of the language of intersubjective stance. Text, 23, 259–284.
Wray, D., & Medwell, J. (2006). Progression in writing and the Northern Ireland: Levels for writing. University of Warwick.
