The case for Contextual Linguistic Diversity in bilingualism research
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1558/jmtp.24140Keywords:
active linguistic exposure, bilingualism, Contextual Linguistic Diversity, language sciences, multilingualism, passive linguistic exposureAbstract
The language sciences have made concerted efforts to emphasize the impact of sociolinguistic context on shaping a person’s language repertoire and associated (neuro)cognitive adaptations, largely propelled by WEIRD-centric research and perspectives. Active engagement with known languages is necessary for acquisition, but input from the ambient environment is typically not addressed, or is considered noise. While irregular and transient linguistic information may indeed be noise, there is a missing middle-ground pertaining to language knowledge that falls between explicit input and linguistic noise, primarily observed in highly linguistically diverse contexts. I consider this missing form of input by making a case for Contextual Linguistic Diversity, the view that one’s linguistic repertoire is not solely constituted by the active use of, or intentional engagement with, languages but also by passive and regular exposure to ambient linguistic input. I offer a theoretical foundation and appeal to existing evidence supporting the view that passive exposure to multiple languages may systematically affect linguistic and (neuro)cognitive abilities, even in the absence of proficiency in or awareness of ambient languages. Adopting a holistic view of contextually influenced linguistic experiences is essential to fairly representing all individuals in their respective sociolinguistic contexts and consequently advancing the field.
References
Akhtar, N. (2005). The robustness of learning through overhearing. Developmental Science, 8(2), 199–209. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2005.00406.x
Akhtar, N., Jipson, J. and Callanan, M. (2001). Learning words through overhearing. Child Development, 72(2), 416–430. https://jstor.org/stable/1132404
Au, T. K.-F., Oh, J. S., Knightly, L. M., Jun, S.-A. and Romo, L. F. (2008). Salvaging a childhood language. Journal of Memory and Language, 58(4), 998–1011. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2007.11.001
Bak, T. H. (2016). Cooking pasta in La Paz: Bilingualism, bias and the replication crisis. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 6(5), 699–717. https://doi.org/10.1075/sibil.57.06bak
Ball, M. J. (2010). The Routledge handbook of sociolinguistics around the world. Routledge.
Barabási, A.-L. and Pósfai, M. (2016). Network science. Cambridge University Press.
Bavin, E. L. (1992). The acquisition of Walpiri. In D. I. Slobin (ed.), The crosslinguistic study of language acquisition (Vol. 3, pp. 309–371). Lawrence Erlbaum.
Beatty-Martínez, A. L. and Dussias, P. E. (2017). Bilingual experience shapes language processing: Evidence from codeswitching. Journal of Memory and Language, 95, 173–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2017.04.002
Beatty-Martínez, A. L., Navarro-Torres, C. A., Dussias, P. E., Bajo, M. T., Guzzardo Tamargo, R. E. and Kroll, J. F. (2020). Interactional context mediates the consequences of bilingualism for language and cognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition, 46(6), 1022–1047. https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000770
Beatty-Martínez, A. L. and Titone, D. (2021). The quest for signals in noise: Leveraging experiential variation to identify bilingual phenotypes. Languages, 6(4), 168. https://doi.org/10.3390/languages6040168
Bice, K. and Kroll, J. F. (2019). English only? Monolinguals in linguistically diverse contexts have an edge in language learning. Brain and Language, 196, 104644. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2019.104644
Blasi, D. E., Henrich, J., Adamou, E., Kemmerer, D. and Majid, A. (2022). Over-reliance on English hinders cognitive science. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 26(12), 1153–1170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2022.09.015
Borgatti, S. P., Mehra, A., Brass, D. J. and Labianca, G. (2009). Network analysis in the social sciences. Science, 323(5916), 892–895. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1165821
Brown, P. (2001). Learning to talk about motion UP and DOWN in Tzeltal: Is there a language-specific bias for verb learning. In M. Bowerman and S. C. Levinson (eds), Language acquisition and conceptual development (pp. 512–543). Cambridge University Press.
Casillas, M., Brown, P. and Levinson, S. C. (2020). Early language experience in a Tseltal Mayan Village. Child Development, 91(5), 1819–1835. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13349
Chambers, K. E., Onishi, K. H. and Fisher, C. (2003). Infants learn phonotactic regularities from brief auditory experience. Cognition, 87(2), B69–B77. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0010-0277(02)00233-0
Chen, J., Justice, L. M., Rhoad-Drogalis, A., Lin, T-J. and Sawyer, B. (2020). Social networks of children with developmental language disorder in inclusive preschool programs. Child Development, 91(2), 471–487. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13183
Collyer, F. M. (2018). Global patterns in the publishing of academic knowledge: Global North, Global South. Current Sociology, 66(1), 56–73. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011392116680020
Creese, A., Blackledge, A. and Martin-Jones, M. (2012). Multilingualism in education in post-colonial contexts: A special focus on sub-Saharan Africa. In M. Martin-Jones, A. Blackledge and A. Creese (eds), The Routledge handbook of multilingualism (pp. 184–200). Routledge.
de Bot, K. and Stoessel, S. (2000). In search of yesterday’s words: Reactivating a long-forgotten language. Applied Linguistics, 21(3), 333–353. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/21.3.333
DeLuca, V., Rothman, J., Bialystok, E. and Pliatsikas, C. (2019). Redefining bilingualism as a spectrum of experiences that differentially affects brain structure and function. PNAS, 116, 7565–7574. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1811513116
Eberhard, D. M., Simons, G. F. and Fennig, C. D. (eds). (2023). Ethnologue: Languages of the world (26th ed). SIL International.
Eleta, I. and Golbeck, J. (2014). Multilingual use of Twitter: Social networks at the language frontier. Computers in Human Behavior, 41, 424–432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.05.005
Ellis, N. C. (2006). Selective attention and transfer phenomena in L2 acquisition: Contingency, cue competition, salience, interference, overshadowing, blocking, and perceptual learning. Applied Linguistics, 27(2), 164–194. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/aml015
Fedeli, D., Del Maschio, N., Sulpizio, S., Rothman, J. and Abutalebi, J. (2021). The bilingual structural connectome: Dual-language experiential factors modulate distinct cerebral networks. Brain and Language, 220, 104978. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2021.104978
Freed, B. F., Segalowitz, N. and Dewey, D. P. (2004). Context of learning and second language fluency in French: Comparing regular classroom, study abroad, and intensive domestic immersion programs. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 26(2), 275–301. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263104262064
Gasser, C. (2000). Exploring the complementarity principle: The case of first generation English-German bilinguals in the Basle area. Master’s thesis. Basle: University of Basle.
Green, D. W. (2011). Language control in different contexts: The behavioral ecology of bilingual speakers. Frontiers in Psychology, 2(103), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00103
Green, D. W. and Abutalebi, J. (2013). Language control in bilinguals: The adaptive control hypothesis. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 25(5), 515–530. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2013.796377
Groff, C. and Bellamy, K. (2020). Biliteracy development in Mexican primary education: Analysing written expression in P’urhepecha and Spanish. The Language Learning Journal, 48(3), 285–299. https://doi.org/10.1080/09571736.2020.1719432
Grosjean, F. (2001). The bilingual’s language modes. In J. Nicol (ed.), One mind, two languages: Bilingual language processing (pp. 1–22). Blackwell.
Grosjean, F. (2012). Bilingual: Life and reality. Harvard University Press.
Grosjean, F. (2016). The complementarity principle and its impact on processing, acquisition, and dominance. In C. Silva-Corvalán and J. Treffers-Daller (eds), Language dominance in bilinguals: Issues of measurement and operationalization (pp. 66–84). Cambridge University Press.
Gullberg, M., Roberts, L. and Dimroth, C. (2012). What word-level knowledge can adult learners acquire after minimal exposure to a new language? International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 50(4), 239–276. https://doi-org.ezp.lib.cam.ac.uk/10.1515/iral-2012-0010
Gullberg, M., Roberts, L., Dimroth, C., Veroude, K. and Indefrey, P. (2010). Adult language learning after minimal exposure to an unknown natural language. Language Learning, 60(2), 5–24. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2010.00598.x
Gullifer, J. W., Chai, X. J., Whitford, V., Pivneva, I., Baum, S., Klein, D. and Titone, D. (2018). Bilingual experience and resting-state brain connectivity: Impacts of L2 age of acquisition and social diversity of language use on control networks. Neuropsychologia, 117, 123–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2018.04.037
Gullifer, J. W., Kousaie, S., Gilbert, A., Grant, A., Giroud, N., Coulter, K., … Titone, D. (2021). Bilingual language experience as a multidimensional spectrum: Associations with objective and subjective language proficiency. Applied Psycholinguistics, 42(2), 245–278. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716420000521
Gullifer, J. W. and Titone, D. (2020). Characterizing the social diversity of bilingualism using language entropy. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 23, 283–294. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728919000026
Gullifer, J. W. and Titone, D. (2021a). Bilingualism: A neurocognitive exercise in managing uncertainty. Neurobiology of Language, 2(4), 464–486. https://doi.org/10.1162/nol_a_00044
Gullifer, J. W. and Titone, D. (2021b). Engaging proactive control: Influences of diverse language experiences using insights from machine learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 150(3), 414–430. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000933
Hartanto, A. and Yang, H. (2016). Disparate bilingual experiences modulate task-switching advantages: A diffusion-model analysis of the effects of interactional context on switch costs. Cognition, 150, 10–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2016.01.016
Haugen, E. (1971). The ecology of language. Linguistic Reporter, 13(1), 19–26.
Haugen, E. (1972). The ecology of language. In E. Haugen (ed.), The ecology of language: Essays by Einar Haugen (pp. 325–339). Stanford University Press.
Henrich, J., Heine, S. J. and Norenzayan, A. (2010). Most people are not WEIRD. Nature, 466, 29. https://doi.org/10.1038/466029a
Horst, J. and von Koss Torkildsen, J. (eds). (2019). International handbook of language acquisition. Routledge.
Howard, L. H., Carrazza, C. and Woodward, A. L. (2014). Neighborhood linguistic diversity predicts infants’ social learning. Cognition, 133(2), 474–479. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2014.08.002
Johnson, E. K. (2016). Constructing a proto-lexicon: An integrative view of infant language development. Annual Review of Linguistics, 2(1), 391–412. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-linguistics-011415-040616
Kalamala, P., Chuderski, A., Szewczyk, J., Senderecka, M. and Wodniecka, Z. (2022). Bilingualism caught in a net: A new approach to understanding the complexity of bilingual experience. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 152(1), 157–174. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0001263
Kalamala, P., Szewczyk, J., Chuderski, A., Senderecka, M. and Wodniecka, Z. (2020). Patterns of bilingual language use and response inhibition: A test of the adaptive control hypothesis. Cognition, 204, 104373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2020.104373
Kaushanskaya, M., Blumenfeld, H. K. and Marian, V. (2020). The Language Experience and Proficiency Questionnaire (LEAP-Q): Ten years later. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 23(5), 945–950. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728919000038
Kim, S., Weber, I., Wei, L. and Oh, A. (2014). Sociolinguistic analysis of Twitter in multilingual societies. In Proceedings of the 25th ACM Conference on Hypertext and Social Media, HT ‘14 (pp. 243–248). https://doi.org/10.1145/2631775.2631824
Kirk, N. W., Declerck, M., Kemp, R. J. and Kempe, V. (2021). Language control in regional dialect speakers – monolingual by name, bilingual by nature? Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 25(3), 511–520. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728921000973
Kremin, L. V. and Byers-Heinlein, K. (2021). Why not both? Rethinking categorical and continuous approaches to bilingualism. International Journal of Bilingualism, 25(6), 1560–1575. https://doi.org/10.1177/13670069211031986
Kroll, J. F., Dussias, P. E. and Bajo, M. T. (2018). Language use across international contexts: Shaping the minds of L2 speakers. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 38, 60–79. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190518000119
Kroll, J. F., Dussias, P. E., Bice, K. and Perrotti, L. (2015). Bilingualism, mind, and brain. Annual Review of Linguistics, 1(1), 377–394. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-linguist-030514-124937
Kuhl, P. K., Tsao, F. M. and Liu, H. M. (2003). Foreign-language experience in infancy: Effects of short-term exposure and social interaction on phonetic learning. PNAS, 100(15), 9096–9101. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.153287210
Kurkela, J. L. O., Hämäläinen, J. A., Leppänen, P. H. T., Shu, H. and Astikainen, P. (2019). Passive exposure to speech sounds modifies change detection brain responses in adults. NeuroImage, 188, 208–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.12.010
Lai, G. and O’Brien, B. A. (2020). Examining language switching and cognitive control through the Adaptive Control Hypothesis. Frontiers in Psychology, 11(1171), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01171
Lanza, E. and Svendsen, B. A. (2007). Tell me who your friends are and I might be able to tell you what language(s) you speak: Social network analysis, multilingualism, and identity. International Journal of Bilingualism, 11(3), 275–300. https://doi.org/10.1177/13670069070110030201
Lehtonen, M., Soveri, A., Laine, A., Jarvenpaa, J., De Bruin, A. and Antfolk, J. (2018). Is bilingualism associated with enhanced executive functioning in adults? A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 144(4), 394–425. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000142
Leivada, E., Rodríguez-Ordóñez, I., Parafita Couto, M. and Perpiñán, S. (2023). Bilingualism with minority languages: Why searching for unicorn language users does not move us forward. Applied Psycholinguistics, 44(3), 384–399. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716423000036
Leung, P. P. Y. and Dewaele, J-M. (2021). Does the complementarity principle apply to inner speech? A mixed-methods study on multilingual Chinese university students in the UK. International Journal of Multilingualism, 20(3), 1164–1184. https://doi.org/10.1080/14790718.2021.1960534
Levinson, S. C. (2008). Landscape, seascape and the ontology of places on Rossel Island, Papua New Guinea. Language Sciences, 30(2–3), 256–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.langsci.2006.12.032
Li, X., Ng, K. K., Wong, J. J. Y., Lee, J. W., Zhou, J. H. and Yow, W. Q. (2021). Bilingual language entropy influences executive functions through functional connectivity and signal variability. Brain and Language, 222, 105026. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2021.105026
Li, P., Zhang, F., Yu, A. and Zhao, X. (2020). Language History Questionnaire (LHQ3): An enhanced tool for assessing multilingual experience. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 23(5), 938–944. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728918001153
Lightfoot, A., Balasubramanian, A., Tsimpli, I. M., Mukhopadhyay, L. and Treffers-Daller, J. (2022). Measuring the multilingual reality: Lessons from classrooms in Delhi and Hyderabad. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 25(6), 2208–2228. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2021.1899123
López, B. G., Luque, A. and Piña-Watson, B. (2021). Context, intersectionality, and resilience: Moving toward a more holistic study of bilingualism in cognitive science. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 29(1), 24–33. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000472
Luk, G. (2022). Justice and equity for whom? Reframing research on the ‘bilingual (dis)advantage’. Applied Psycholinguistics, 44(3), 301315. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716422000339
Luk, G., Anderson, J. A. E. and Grundy, G. (eds). (2023). Understanding language and cognition through bilingualism: In honor of Ellen Bialystok. John Benjamins.
Luk, G. and Bialystok, E. (2013). Bilingualism is not a categorical variable: Interaction between language proficiency and usage. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 25(5), 605–621. https://doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2013.795574
MacKenzie, P. J. (2009). Mother tongue first multilingual education among the tribal communities in India. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 12(4), 369–385. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050902935797
Makoni, S., Kaiper-Marquez, A. and Mokwena, L. (2022). The Routledge handbook of language and the Global South/s. Routledge.
McLaughlin, J., Osterhout, L. and Kim, A. (2004). Neural correlates of second language word learning: Minimal instruction produces rapid change. Nature Neuroscience, 7, 703–704. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn1264
Medin, D., Ojalehto, B., Marin, A. and Bang, M. (2017). Systems of (non-)diversity. Nature Human Behaviour, 1(88), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-017-0088
Mesthrie, R. (ed.). (2002). Language in South Africa. Cambridge University Press.
Montanari, S. and Quay, S. (eds). (2019). Multidisciplinary perspectives on multilingualism (Vol. 19). De Gruyter.
Navarro-Torres, C. A., Beatty-Martínez, A. L., Kroll, J. F. and Green, D. W. (2021). Research on bilingualism as discovery science. Brain and Language, 222, 105014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2021.105014
Ngcobo, M. N. (2012). The constitutional dynamism of a multilingual language policy: A case of South Africa. South African Journal of African Languages, 32(2), 181–187. https://doi.org/10.2989/SAJAL.2012.32.2.10.1147
Nicoladis, E. and Montanari, S. (eds). (2016). Bilingualism across the lifespan: Factors moderating language proficiency. De Gruyter.
O’Connor, L. and Muysken, P. (eds). (2014). The native languages of South America: Origins, development, typology. Cambridge University Press.
Oh, J., Au, T. and Jun, S. (2010). Early childhood language memory in the speech perception of international adoptees. Journal of Child Language, 37(5), 1123–1132. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0305000909990286
Oh, Y., Todd, S., Beckner, C., Hay, J., King, J. and Needle, J. (2020). Non-Maori-speaking New Zealanders have a Maori proto-lexicon. Scientific Reports, 10(1), 22318. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-78810-4
Ooi, S. H., Goh, W. D., Sorace, A. and Bak, T. H. (2018). From bilingualism to bilingualisms: Bilingual experience in Edinburgh and Singapore affects attentional control differently. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 21(4), 867–879. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728918000020
Ortega, L. (2019). SLA and the study of equitable multilingualism. The Modern Language Journal, 103(S1), 23–38. https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12525
Panther, F., Mattingley, W., Todd, S., Hay, J. and King, J. (2023). Proto-lexicon size and phonotactic knowledge are linked in non-Maori speaking New Zealand adults. Laboratory Phonology: Journal of the Association for Laboratory Phonology, 14(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.16995/labphon.7943
Pierce, L. J., Chen, J.-K., Delcenserie, A., Genesee, F. and Klein, D. (2015). Past experience shapes ongoing neural patterns for language. Nature Communications, 6, 10073. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms10073
Sherkina-Lieber, M., Perez-Leroux, A. and Johns, A. (2011). Grammar without speech production: The case of Labrador Inuttitut heritage receptive bilinguals. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 14(3), 301–317. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728910000210
Stocker, L. and Berthele, R. (2020). The roles of language mode and dominance in French–German bilinguals’ motion event descriptions. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 23(3), 519–531. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728919000294
Sulpizio, S., Del Maschio, N., Del Mauro, G., Fedeli, D. and Abutalebi, J. (2020). Bilingualism as a gradient measure modulates functional connectivity of language and control networks. NeuroImage, 205, 116306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.116306
Surrain, S. and Luk, G. (2019). Describing bilinguals: A systematic review of labels and descriptions used in the literature between 2005–2015. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 22(2), 401–415. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728917000682
Titone, D. A. and Tiv, M. (2022). Rethinking multilingual experience through a systems framework of bilingualism. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 26(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728921001127
Titone, D. A. and Tiv, M. (2023). Rethinking multilingual experience through a systems framework of bilingualism: Response to commentaries. Bilingualism: Language & Cognition, 26(1), 247–251. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728922000785
Tiv, M., Gullifer, J. W., Ying Feng, R. and Titone, D. (2020). Using network science to map what Montréal bilinguals talk about across languages and communicative contexts. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 56, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroling.2020.100913
Todd, S., Ben Youssef, C. and Vásquez-Aguilar, A. (2023). Language structure, attitudes, and learning from ambient exposure: Lexical and phonotactic knowledge of Spanish among non-Spanish-speaking Californians and Texans. PLoS ONE, 18(4): e0284919. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284919
Tsimpli, I. M., Mukhopadhyay, L., Treffers-Daller, J., Alladi, S., Marinis, T., Panda, M., Balasubramanian, A. and Sinha, P. (2019). Multilingualism and multiliteracy in primary education in India: A discussion of some methodological challenges of an interdisciplinary research project. Research in Comparative and International Education, 14(1), 54–76. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745499919828908
Tsimpli, I. M., Vogelzang, M., Balasubramanian, A., Marinis, T., Alladi, S., Reddy, A. and Panda, M. (2020). Linguistic diversity, multilingualism, and cognitive skills: A study of disadvantaged children in India. Languages, 5(1), 10. https://doi.org/10.3390/languages5010010
Unsworth, S. (2016). Quantity and quality of language input in bilingual language development. In E. Nicoladis and S. Montanari (eds), Bilingualism across the lifespan: Factors moderating language proficiency (pp. 103–123). De Gruyter.
van den Berg, F., Brouwer, J., Tienkamp, T. B., Verhagen, J. and Keijzer, M. (2022). Language entropy relates to behavioral and pupil indices of executive control in young adult bilinguals. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 864763. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.864763
VanPatten, B. and Williams, J. (2014). Theories in second language acquisition: An introduction. Routledge.
Vitevitch, M. (2019). Network science in cognitive psychology. Routledge.
Wagner, D., Bekas, K. and Bialystok, E. (2023). Does language entropy shape cognitive performance? A tale of two cities. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 26(5), 998–1008. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728923000202
Weisleder, A. and Fernald, A. (2013). Talking to children matters: Early language experience strengthens processing and builds vocabulary. Psychological Science, 24(11), 2143–2152. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613488145
Wigdorowitz, M., Pérez, A. I. and Tsimpli, I. M. (2022). Sociolinguistic context matters: Exploring differences in contextual linguistic diversity in South Africa and England. International Multilingual Research Journal, 16(4), 345–364. https://doi.org/10.1080/19313152.2022.2069416
Wigdorowitz, M., Pérez, A. I. and Tsimpli, I. M. (2023). A holistic measure of contextual and individual linguistic diversity. International Journal of Multilingualism, 20(2), 469–487. https://doi.org/10.1080/14790718.2020.1835921
Yang, H., Tng, G. Y. Q., Ng, G. R. and Ng, W. Q. (2022). Bilingual interactional contexts predict executive functions in older adults. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 26(1), 36–47. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728922000190
Yu, Z. Y. and Schwieter, J. W. (2018). Recognizing the effects of language mode on the cognitive advantages of bilingualism. Frontiers in Psychology, 9(366), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00366
Zhang, H., Diaz, M. T., Guo, T. and Kroll, J. F. (2021). Language immersion and language training: Two paths to enhanced language regulation and cognitive control. Brain and Language, 223, 105043. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2021.105043