Blurring the binaries of home/school in Family Language Policy
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1558/sols.24796Keywords:
Family Language Policy, Ndebele, language lessons, language ideologies, language practices, ZimbabweAbstract
The persistence of the COVID-19-induced lockdowns resulted in increased parent-child encounters as parents worked from home while children learnt through remote platforms. This blurred the binaries of home/school as parents assumed the role of teachers by participating in children’s schooling more formally. By focusing on the role of parents as teachers in heritage language tasks, this study discusses family language ideologies and how they are infused into the teaching and learning of Ndebele, a historically minoritised and marginalised language in Zimbabwe. Data is drawn from a linguistic ethnography of a Ndebele heritage language family residing in the city of Bulawayo. Data consists of audio-recorded Ndebele language lessons and parental interviews. By drawing on the concepts of Family Language Policy and Bourdieu’s notion of ‘legitimate language’, the study exposes how children’s heritage language tasks became important aspects of family’s language transactions, contestations and negotiations. Parents build on their temporary teacher authority to assert their agency in reinforcing a Ndebele identity by endeavouring to teach Ndebele to their children through a ‘Ndebele lens’. Children’s stances towards parents’ monolingual practices and ideologies reveal their resistant agency. Their appeals for explanations and translations of some Ndebele words and expressions into English reproduce school language practices and ideologies that project English as the legitimate language. Parents’ insistence on monolingual practices and children’s language negotiations also reproduces the tensions that exist between English and indigenous languages at school and in the community at large. The study concludes that despite these tensions, these heritage language tasks present opportunities for productive language concordant parent-child encounters that reinforce children’s linguistic identities.
References
Alexander, J. (2021) The noisy silence of Gukurahundi: Truth, recognition and belonging. Journal of Southern African Studies 47(5): 1–23. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/03057070.2021.1954356.
Bourdieu, P. (1991) Language and symbolic power. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Brooksbank, J. (2017) Family language policy: Parental discourse strategies and child responses. M.A dissertation. University of Ottawa. Retrieved from: https://ruor.uottawa.ca/bitstream/10393/36128/1/Brooksbank_Joselyn_2017_Thesis.pdf
Cenoz, J. and Gorter, D. (2017) Minority languages and sustainable translanguaging: Threat or opportunity? Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 38(10): 901–912. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2017.1284855.
Childs, M. (2016) Reflecting on translanguaging in multilingual classrooms: Harnessing the power of poetry and photography. Educational Research for Social Change 5(1): 22–40. Doi: https://doi.org/10.17159/2221-4070/2016/v5i1a2.
Connaughton-Crean, L. and Ó Duibhir, P. (2017) Home language maintenance and development among first generation migrant children in an Irish primary school: An investigation of attitudes. Journal of Home Language Research 2: 22–39. Doi: https://doi.org/10.16993/jhlr.29.
Curdt-Christiansen, X. L. (2013a) Negotiating family language policy: Doing homework. In M. Schwartz and A. Verschik (eds) Successful family language policy 277–295. Dordrecht: Springer. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7753-8_12.
Curdt-Christiansen, X. L. (2013b) Family language policy: Sociopolitical reality versus linguistic continuity. Language Policy 12(1): 1–6. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10993-012-9269-0.
De Houwer, A. (2009) Bilingual first language acquisition. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Doi: https://doi.org/10.21832/9781847691507.
Fishman, J.A. (1991) Reversing language shift: Theoretical and empirical foundations of assistance to threatened languages. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Fogle, L.W. and King, K.A. (2013) Child agency and language policy in transnational families. Issues in Applied Linguistics 19(0): 1–25. Doi: https://doi.org/10.5070/L4190005288.
Gomes, R.L. (2020) Talking multilingual families into being: Language practices and ideologies of a Brazilian-Norwegian family in Norway. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 43(10): 993–1013. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2020.1788037.
Gyogi, E. (2015) Children’s agency in language choice: A case study of two Japanese-English bilingual children in London. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 18(6): 749–764. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2014.956043.
Heller, M. (1996) Legitimate language in a multilingual school. Linguistics and Education 8(2): 139–157.
Higgins, C. (2018) The meso level of family language policy. International Journal of Multilingualism 15(3): 306–312. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/14790718.2018.1477298.
Hua, Z. and Wei, L. (2016) Transnational experience, aspiration and family language policy. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 37(7): 655–666. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2015.1127928.
Kadenge, M. and Nkomo, D. (2011) The politics of the English language in Zimbabwe. Language Matters 42(2): 248–263. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/10228195.2011.581679.
Kasbarian, J.M. (1997) Minoritised language and minority language. In M.L. Moreau (ed.) Sociolinguistics: Base concepts 185–188. Bruxelles: Mardaga.
Kayam, O. (2013) Heritage language maintenance among native English speakers living in Israel. Journal of Sociological Research 4(2): 308–317. Doi: https://doi.org/10.5296/jsr.v4i2.4446.
Khan, I.U., Imtiaz, A., Khan, S., Amina, S., and Ahmed, A. (2020) Identity in linguistic ethnography: A heteroglossic perspective of EFL learning in Pakistan. Elementary Education Online 19(4): 5879–5888.
Kheirkhah, M. and Cekaite, A. (2015) Language maintenance in a multilingual family: Informal heritage language lessons in parent-child interactions. Multilingua 34(3): 319–346. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1515/multi-2014-1020.
King, K.A., Fogle, L., and Logan-Terry, A. (2008) Family language policy. Language and Linguistics Compass 2(5): 907–922. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-818X.2008.00076.x.
Kriger, N. (2005) ZANU (PF) strategies in general elections, 1980–2000: Discourse and coercion. African Affairs 104(414): 1–34. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/afraf/adi016.
Lanza, E. (1997) Language mixing in infant bilingualism: A sociolinguistic perspective. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Lanza, E. (2021) The family as a space: Multilingual repertoires, language practices and lived experiences. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 42(8): 763–771. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2021.1979015.
Luykx, A. (2005) Children as socializing agents: Family language policy in situations of language shift. In J. Cohen, K.T. McAlister, K. Rolstad, and J. MacSwan (eds) Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Bilingualism 1407–1414. Somerville: Cascadilla Press.
Macalister, J. and Mirvahedi, S.H. (2017) Beginnings. In J. Macalister and S.H. Mirvahedi (eds) Family language policies in a multilingual world: Opportunities, challenges and consequences 1–10. New York: Taylor and Francis.
Maseko, B. (2021a) Teachers’ language ideologies, conflicting language policy and practices in Zimbabwean education system. Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies 39(1): 30–42. Doi: https://doi.org/10.2989/16073614.2021.1886591.
Maseko, B. (2021b) Family language policy: The case for a bottom-up approach in conserving Zimbabwe’s minoritised languages. South African Journal of African Languages 41(2): 187–195. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/02572117.2021.1948221.
Maseko, B. (2022) Family language policy in post-genocide Matabeleland: The case of a Ndebele family. Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies 40(1):1–14. Doi: https://doi.org/10.2989/16073614.2021.1990093.
Maseko, B. and Mutasa, D. (2018) The influence of Kalanga parents’ language ideologies on children’s language practices. Language Matters 49(3): 47–66. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/10228195.2018.1496132.
Maseko, B. and Mutasa, D.E. (2019) ‘Only Tonga spoken here!’: Family language management among the Tonga in Zimbabwe. Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies 37(4): 289–302. Doi: https://doi.org/10.2989/16073614.2019.1692676.
Maseko, B. and Matunge, P. (2020) Language ideologies and language practices in health services: Patients’ experiences in post-colonial Zimbabwe. Alternation – Interdisciplinary Journal for the Study of the Arts and Humanities in Southern Africa 36: 335–358. Doi: https://doi.org/10.29086/2519-5476/2020/sp36a14.
McKinney, C. and Molate, B. (2022) Coloniality and family language policy in an African multilingual family. In L. Wright and C. Higgins (eds) Diversifying family language policy 257–276. London: Bloomsbury.
Ncube, G. and Siziba, G. (2017a) (Re)membering the nation’s ‘forgotten’ past: Portrayals of Gukurahundi in Zimbabwean literature. The Journal of Commonwealth Literature 52(2): 231–247. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/0021989415615646.
Ncube, G. and Siziba, G. (2017b) Compelled to perform in the ‘oppressor’s’ language? Ndebele performing artists and Zimbabwe’s Shona-centric habitus. Journal of Southern African Studies 43(4): 825–836. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/03057070.2017.1313609.
Ndhlovu, F. (2006) Gramsci, Doke and the marginalisation of the Ndebele language in Zimbabwe. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 27(4): 305–318. Doi: https://doi.org/10.2167/jmmd445.1.
Ndhlovu, F. (2008a) The politics of language and nationality in Zimbabwe: Nation building or empire building? South African Journal of African Languages 28(1):1–10.
Ndhlovu, F. (2008b) The conundrums of language policy and politics in South Africa and Zimbabwe. Australian Journal of Linguistics 28(1): 59–80. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/07268600701877499.
Ndlovu, T. (2010) Where is my home? Rethinking person, family, ethnicity and home under increased transnational migration by Zimbabweans. African Identities 8(2): 117–130. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/14725841003629575.
Ndlovu-Gatsheni, S. (2009) Nation building in Zimbabwe and the challenges of Ndebele particularism. African Journal on Conflict Resolution 8(3): 27–56. Doi: https://doi.org/10.4314/ajcr.v8i3.39430.
Nkomo, D. (2008) Language in education and language development in Zimbabwe. Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies 26(3): 351–362. Doi: https://doi.org/10.2989/SALALS.2008.26.3.4.631.
Nkomo, D. and Maseko, B. (2017) Sixteen officially recognised languages: Milestones and challenges for linguistic democracy in Zimbabwe. In M.K. Ralarala, K. Barris, E. Ivala, and S. Siyepu (eds) African languages and language practice research in the 21st century: Interdisciplinary themes and perspectives 241–259. Cape Town: CASAS.
Purkarthofer, J., Lanza, E., and Berg, M.F. (2021) Discourses between the public and the private: Transnational families at the crossroads. Applied Linguistics 43(3): 563–586. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amab053.
Ren, L. and Hu, G. (2013) Prolepsis, syncretism, and synergy in early language and literacy practices: A case study of family language policy in Singapore. Language Policy 12(1): 63–82. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10993-012-9260-9.
Revis, M. (2019) A Bourdieusian perspective on child agency in family language policy. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 22(2): 177–191. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2016.1239691.
Said, F. and Zhu, H. (2019) ‘No, no Maama! Say ‘Shaatir ya Ouledee Shaatir’!’ Children’s agency in language use and socialisation. International Journal of Bilingualism 23(3): 771–785. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/1367006916684919.
Schwartz, M. (2010) Family language policy: Core issues of an emerging field. Applied Linguistics Review 1: 171–192. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110222654.171.
Schwartz, M. and Moin, V. (2012) Parents’ assessment of their preschool children’s bilingual development in the context of family language policy. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 33(1): 35–55. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2011.638078.
Schwartz, M. and Verschik, A. (2013) Achieving success in family language policy: Parents, children and educators in interaction. In M. Schwartz and A. Verschik (eds) Successful Family Language Policy 1–20. Dordrecht: Springer. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7753-8_1.
Seloni, L. and Sarfati, Y. (2013) (Trans)national language ideologies and family language practices: A life history inquiry of Judeo-Spanish in Turkey. Language Policy 12(1): 7–26. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10993-012-9262-7.
Sibanda, B. (2021) The language of the Gukurahundi genocide in Zimbabwe: 1980–1987. Journal of Literary Studies 37(2): 129–145. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/02564718.2021.1923737.
Skutnabb-Kangas, T. and McCarty, T.L. (2008) Key concepts in bilingual education: Ideological, historical, epistemological, and empirical foundations. In J. Cummins and N. Hornberger (eds) Bilingual education: Encyclopedia of language and education 3–17. New York: Springer.
Slavkov, N. (2017) Family language policy and school language choice: Pathways to bilingualism and multilingualism in a Canadian context. International Journal of Multilingualism 14(4): 378–400. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/14790718.2016.1229319.
Smith-Christmas, C. (2014) Being socialised into language shift: The impact of extended family members on family language policy. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 35(5): 511–526. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2014.882930.
Soler, J. and Roberts, T. (2019) Parents’ and grandparents’ views on home language regimes: Language ideologies and trajectories of two multilingual families in Sweden. Critical Inquiry in Language Studies 16(4): 249–270. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/15427587.2018.1564878.
Spolsky, B. (2004) Language policy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Spolsky, B. (2009) Language management. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511626470.
Spolsky, B. (2012) Family language policy – The critical domain. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 33(1): 3–11. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2011.638072.
Tannenbaum, M. (2012) Family language policy as a form of coping or defence mechanism. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 33(1): 57–66. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2011.638074.
Wenhan, X., Bee Chin, N., and Cavallaro, F. (2022) Living in harmony: The negotiation of intergenerational family language policy in Singapore. Language and Communication 82: 8–27. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.langcom.2021.11.004.
Wilson, S. (2020) Family language policy: Children’s perspectives. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52437-1.
