Notes on the Accuracy of Google Earth Pro Heading Information for Archaeoastronomy and Landscape Archaeology Studies
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1558/jsa.25599Keywords:
alignments; archaeoastronomy; Google Earth Pro; satellite imagery; spatial resolutionAbstract
Google Earth Pro (GEP) is a powerful tool that can be used for archaeoastronomic and landscape archaeology assessments. Of potential concern, however, is the accuracy of the GEP ruler tool and, in particular, the accuracy of heading information. In the present paper the accuracy of GEP heading information is evaluated. Comparative assessments are made using GEP imagery, airport runway diagrams and ground survey data derived from total station solar observations. These analyses indicate that the accuracy of GEP heading data is largely dependent on spatial resolution of the GEP image and length of the line being measured.
Downloads
References
Adams, C, 2017. “Spatial Resolution of Google Earth Imagery” [online]. Accessed June 2022. https://gis.stackexchange.com/questions/11395/spatial-resolution-of-google-earth-imagery/256850#256850
Agapiou, A., 2020. “Evaluation of Landsat 8 OLI/TIRS Level-2 and Sentinel 2 Level-1C Fusion Techniques Intended for Image Segmentation of Archaeological Landscapes and Proxies”. Remote Sensing 12 (3): Article 579 [online]. https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/12/3/579
AGRS [Australian Geospatial Reference System], 2022. “AGRS Tools Models and Resources” [online]. Accessed May 2022. http://www.ga.gov.au/geodesy/datums/vincenty_inverse.jsp
ArcGIS Pro, 2022. [online download]. Accessed May 2022. https://www.esri.com/en-us/arcgis/products/arcgis-pro/overview
Aubin, M., 2008. “Google Earth: From Space to Your Face… and Beyond”. Creative Digital Communication, 24th November [online]. Accessed July 2022. https://mattiehead.wordpress.com/2008/11/24/google-earth-inspiration-from-space-to-your-face/
Aveni, A., 1980. Skywatchers of Ancient Mexico. Austin: University of Texas Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/
Bar-Zeev, A., 2020. “How Google Earth (Really) Works”. OneZero, 30th January [online]. Accessed July 2022. https://onezero.medium.com/how-google-earth-really-works-d4ed11fc629d
Bar-Zeev, A., 2021. “Was Google Earth Stolen? (No)”. Medium, 12th October [online]. Accessed July 2022. https://avibarzeev.medium.com/was-google-earth-stolen-7d1b821e589b
Baratta, N. C., G. Magli and A. Picotti, 2022. “The Orientation of the Kofun Tombs”. Remote Sensing 14 (2): Article 377 [online]. Assessed April 2022, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14020377.
Barbarella, M., M. Fiani and C. Zollo, 2017. “Assessment of DEM Derived From Very-High Resolution Stereo Satellite Imagery for Geomorphometric Analysis”. European Journal of Remote Sensing 50 (1): 534–549 [online]. Accessed June 2020. https://doi.org/10.1080/22797254.2017.1372084.
Belmonte, J.A., M. Shaltout and M. Fekri, 2009. “Astronomy, Landscape and Symbolism: A Study of the Orientation of Ancient Egyptian Temples”. In In Search of Cosmic Order: Selected Essays on Egyptian Archaeoastronomy, edited by J. A. Belmonte and M. Shaltout, 215–283. Cairo: Supreme Council of Antiquities Press.
Blue Marble Geographics, 2022. Global Mapper [online]. Accessed April 2022. https://www.bluemarblegeo.com/global-mapper/
Bolstad, P., 2019. GIS Fundamentals: A First Text on Geographic Information Systems (6th edition). Ann Arbor, MI: XanEdu.
Brady, B., 2017. “The Dual Alignments of the Solstitial Churches in North Wales”. Journal of Skyscape Archaeology 3 (1): 5–28. https://doi.org/10.1558/jsa.30562
Brown, E. and C. Harder, eds, 2016. The ArcGIS Imagery Book: New View, New Vision. Redlands, CA. Esri Press.
Brunton, 2022. “Geo Transit (specs)” [online]. Accessed May 2022. https://www.brunton.com/collections/instruments-transits/products/geo-pocket-transit?variant=33175454777403#desc
Calvo, K., 2015. So You Want to Create Maps Using Drones? Photogrammetry Field Guide for Photographers, Researchers, and Conservationists. No location: Blurb.
Castro, B., I. Liritzis and A. Nyssmith, 2015. “Oracular Functioning and Architecture of Five Ancient Apollo Temples Through Archaeoastronomy: Novel Approach and Interpretation”. Nexus Network Journal 18: 373–395. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00004-015-0276-2
Civil Aviation Administration of China, 2014. “Lhasa Gonggar Airport Chart” [online]. Accessed June 2022. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:ZULS-1.pdf
Connelly, B., 2020. “Bearing Vs Heading Vs Azimuth Vs Course” [online]. Accessed September 2022. https://50miler.com/bearing-vs-heading-vs-azimuth-vs-course/
Cristofaro, I. and M. Silani, 2020. “Approaching Skyscape Archaeology: A Note on Method and Fieldwork for the Case Study of Pompeii”. GROMA 5-2020 [online]. Accessed July 2022. https://doi.org/10.12977/groma33/pp.1-22
Dallas, T. G., 2021. “A Note on the Orientation of Nubian Churches”. Beiträge zur Sudanforschung 13: 47–58.
DJI Enterprise, 2022. “Geoid vs Ellipsoid: What’s the Difference and Why Does it Matter?” [online]. Accessed July 2022. https://enterprise-insights.dji.com/blog/geoid-vs-ellipsoid
el-Ashmawy, K. L. A., 2016. “Investigation of the Accuracy of Google Earth Elevation Data”. Artificial Satellites: Journal of Planetary Geodesy 51 (3): 89–97 [online]. Accessed July 2022. https://www.sciendo.com/article/10.1515/arsa-2016-0008
Elgin, D., R. L. Knowles and J. H. Senne, 1999. 2000 Celestial Observation Handbook and Ephemeris. Overland Park, KS: Sokkia.
Esri, 2022. “World Imagery” [online]. Accessed September 2022. https://www.arcgis.com/home/item.html?id=10df2279f9684e4a9f6a7f08febac2a9
Federal Aviation Administration, 2014. “Advisory Circular AC 150/5300-13A. Airport Design” [online]. Accessed May 2022. https://www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Advisory_Circular/150-5300-13A-chg1-interactive-201612.pdf
Federal Aviation Administration, 2022. “FAA Airport Diagrams” [online]. Accessed May 2022. https://www.faa.gov/airports/runway_safety/diagrams/
Formeller, C., 2020a. “Introducing 15 cm HD: The Highest Clarity From Commercial Satellite Imagery”. Maxar Blog, 12th November [online]. Accessed April 2022. https://blog.maxar.com/earth-intelligence/2020/introducing-15-cm-hd-the-highest-clarity-from-commercial-satellite-imagery
Formeller, C., 2020b. “Satellite Imagery: Native Resolution Compared to Synthetic Resolution”. Maxar Blog, 1st September [online]. Accessed April 2022. https://blog.maxar.com/tech-and-tradecraft/2020/satellite-imagery-native-resolution-compared-to-synthetic-resolution
Ghilani, C. D. and P. R. Wolf, 2015. Elementary Surveying: An Introduction to Geomatics (14th edition). Boston: Pearson.
Gibson, D., 2016. “Accuracy of Google Earth” [online]. Accessed August 2022. http://www.thesacredcity.ca/Google%20Earth.pdf
Gonzales de Olivera, C. and W. R. Paradella, 2008. “An Assessment of the Altimetric Information Derived From Spaceborn SAR (RADARSAT-1, SRTM3 and Optical (ASTER) Data for Cartographic Application in the Amazon Region”. Sensors (Basel) 8 (6): 3819–3829. https://doi.org/10.3390/s8063819
Google Earth Developers, Landsat Collections, 2022. “Earth Engine Data Catalog: Landsat Collections” [online]. Accessed July 2022. https://developers.google.com/earth-engine/datasets/catalog/landsat-9
Google Earth Pro v.7.3.2.5776, 2019 [online]. Accessed August 2022. https://google.com/earth/desktop/
Google Earth User Guide, 2007 [online]. Accessed April 2022. https://static.googleusercontent.com/media/earth.google.de/de/de/userguide/v4/google_earth_user_guide.pdf
Google News from Google, 2005. “Google Launches Free 3D Mapping and Search Product”. Google News from Google, 28th June [online]. Accessed July 2022. http://googlepress.blogspot.com/2005/06/google-launches-free-3d-mapping-and_28.html
Green, K., R. G. Congalton and M. Tukman, 2017. Imagery and GIS: Best Practices for Extracting Information from Imagery. Redlands, CA: ESRI Press.
Hamilton, S., 2018. More than Pretty Pictures: Drones, Bison Kills, and Considerations of Cultural Landscapes. Archaeological Survey of Alberta Occasional Paper 38 [online]. Accessed August 2022. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330466747
Hancock, P., 2018. “Former Tech Exec, Lawrence Native Brian McClendon Announces Run for Kansas Secretary of State”. LJWorld.com: Lawrence Journal World, 22nd January [online]. Accessed July 2022. https://www2.ljworld.com/news/2018/jan/22/former-tech-exec-lawrence-native-brian-mcclendon-a
ICSM [Intergovernmental Committee on Surveying and Mapping], 2022. “Commonly Used Map Projections” [online]. Accessed April 2022. https://www.icsm.gov.au/education/fundamentals-mapping/projections/commonly-used-map-projections
IRAS [Imagery Resolution Assessments and Reporting Standards Committee], 1996. “Civil NIIRS Reference Guide Appendix II: Additional NIIRS Criteria” [online]. Accessed April 2022. https://irp.fas.org/imint/niirs_c/guide.htm
Irvine, J. M., 1997. “National Imagery Interpretability Rating scales (NIIRS): Overview and Methodology”. In Airborne Reconnaissance XXI. Proceedings of SPIE 3128 [online]. https://doi.org/10.1117/12.279081
Judge, W. J. and J. D. Schelberg, 1984. Recent Research on Chaco Prehistory. Reports of the Chaco Center 8. Albuquerque, NM: Branch of Cultural Research, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, National Park Service.
Karney, C. F. F., 2013. “Algorithms for Geodesics”. Journal of Geodesy 87: 43–55 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00190-012-0578-z
Karney, C. F. F., 2022. “Online Geodesic Calculations Using the GeodSolve Utility”. GeographicLib [online]. Accessed July 2022. https://geographiclib.sourceforge.io/cgi-bin/GeodSolve
Kelly, K. M. and M. L. Dennis, 2022. “Transforming Between WGS84 Realizations”. Journal of Surveying Engineering 148 (2): Article 04021031 [online]. Accessed July 2022. https://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/%28ASCE%29SU.1943-5428.0000389
Kilday, B., 2018. Never Lost Again: The Google Mapping Revolution that Sparked New Industries and Augmented Our Reality. New York: HarperCollins.
Kloko?ník, J., J. Kostelecký and K. Pavelka, 2011. “Google Earth: Inspiration and Instrument for the Study of Ancient Civilizations” [online]. Geoinformatics FCE CTU 6: 193–211 [online]. Accessed June 2022. https://ojs.cvut.cz/ojs/index.php/gi/article/view/gi.6.25/2499 https://doi.org/10.14311/gi.6.25
Kolganova, G. Y., M. G. Nickiforov and V. M. M Reijs, 2015. “New Archeoastronomical Investigation of the Complex Koy-Krylgan-kala”. Bulgarian Astronomical Journal 23: 15–30 [online]. Accessed July 2022. https://astro.bas.bg/AIJ/issues/n23/GKolganova.pdf
Kubišta, J. and P. Surový, 2021. “Spatial Resolution of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Acquired Imagery as a Result of Different Processing Conditions”. Central European Forestry Journal 67: 148–154 [online]. Accessed July 2022. https://sciendo.com/pdf/10.2478/forj-2021-0011
Leachtenauer, J. C. and R. G. Driggers, 2001. Surveillance and Reconnaissance Imaging Systems: Modeling and Performance Prediction. Boston: Artech House.
Levine, Y., 2018. “Google’s Earth: How the Tech Giant is Helping the State Spy on Us”. The Guardian, 20th December [online]. Accessed July 2022. https://www.theguardian.com/news/2018/dec/20/googles-earth-how-the-tech-giant-is-helping-the-state-spy-on-us
Liang, H. and S. Newsam, 2019. “Estimating the Spatial Resolution of Very-High Resolution Overhead Imagery”. 3rd ACM SIGSPATIAL International Workshop on AI for Geographic Knowledge Discovery (GeoAI’19), November 5, 2019, Chicago, IL, USA. ACM, New York, NY, USA [online]. Accessed June 2022. https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/3356471.3365241
Liritzis, I., 2015. “Nabatean Tombs Orientation By Remote Sensing: Provisional Results”. Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry 15 (3): 289–299.
Magli, G., 2020. Sacred Landscapes of Imperial China: Astronomy, Feng Shui, and the Mandate of Heaven. Cham, Switzerland: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-49324-0
Maney, K., 2003. “Tiny Tech Company Awes Viewers”. USA Today, 21st March [online]. Accessed July 2022. https://usatoday30.usatoday.com/tech/news/techinnovations/2003-03-20-earthviewer_x.htm
Maver, L. A., C. D. Erdman and K. Riehl, 1998. “Imagery Interpretability Rating Scales”. Federation of American Scientists, Intelligence Resource Program [online]. Accessed August 2022. https://irp.fas.org/imint/niirs.htm
Millon, R., ed, 1973. The Teotihuacan Map, 2 vols. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Mohammed, N. Z., A. Ghazi and H. E. Mustafa, 2013. “Positional Accuracy Testing of Google Earth”. International Journal of Multidisciplinary Sciences and Engineering 4 (6): 6–9.
Mukul, M., V. Srivastava, S. Jade and M. Mukul, 2017. “Uncertainties in the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) Heights: Insights from the Indian Himalaya and Peninsula”. Scientific Reports 7: Article 41672 [online]. Accessed April 2022. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep41672
Mulu, Y. A. and S. D. Derib, 2019. “Positional Accuracy Evaluation of Google Earth in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia”. Artificial Satellites. Journal of Planetary Geodesy 54 (2): 44–56 [online]. Accessed July 2022. https://sciendo.com/article/10.2478/arsa-2019-0005
Munro, A. M. and J. M. Malville, 2010. “Archaeoastronomy in the Field: Methodologies Applied in Chaco Canyon”. Journal of Cosmology 9: 2147–2159 [online]. Accessed April 2022. http://journalofcosmology.com/AncientAstronomy115.html.
Munro, A. M. and J. M. Malville, 2011. “Ancestors and the Sun: Astronomy, Architecture and Culture at Chaco Canyon”. In Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy: Building Bridges between Cultures: Proceedings of the 278th Symposium of the International Astronomical Union and “Oxford IX” International Symposium on Archaeoastronomy, Held in Lima, Peru, January 5–14, 2011, edited by C. L. N. Ruggles, 255–264. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1743921311012683
Nathan, S., 2019. “Resolutions of Remote Sensing – An Archaeological Perspective” [online]. Accessed July 2022. https://habitsofatravellingarchaeologist.com/4-resolutions-of-remote-sensing-an-archaeological-perspective/
Nell, E. and C. Ruggles, 2014. “The Orientations of the Giza Pyramids and Associated Structures”. Journal for the History of Astronomy 45 (3): 304–360 [online]. Accessed April 2022. https://arxiv.org/feetp/arxiv/papers/1302/1302.5622.pdf https://doi.org/10.1177/0021828614533065
NOAA [National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration], 2017. “PC Software Download – INVERSE and FORWARD”. National Geodetic Survey website. Accessed July 2022. https://www.ngs.noaa.gov/PC_PROD/Inv_Fwd/
NOAA [National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration], 2022. “Magnetic Field Calculators” [online]. Accessed July 2022. https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/geomag/calculators/magcalc.shtml#declination
NOAA [National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration], n.d. “Finding Survey Marks and Datasheets” [online]. Accessed July 2022. https://geodesy.noaa.gov/datasheets/index.shtml
OSSIM [Open Source Software Image Map], 2022. “Orthorectification” [online]. Accessed July 2022. https://trac.osgeo.org/ossim/wiki/orthorectification
Outzen, J. D., 2013 [1988]. “Preface”. In The CORONA Story by F. Oder, J. Fitzpatrick and P. Worthman. Chantilly, VA: Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance [online]. Accessed September 2022. https://www.nro.gov/Portals/65/documents/history/csnr/corona/The%20CORONA%20Story.pdf?ver=BgSn5nPYz45EZ9O_ZF57Ow%3d%3d
Pike, J., 1998. “National Image Interpretability Rating Scales”. Federation of American Scientists Intelligence Resource Program. [online]. Accessed April 2022. https://irp.fas.org/imint/niirs.htm
Potere, D., 2008. “Horizontal Positional Accuracy of Google Earth’s High-Resolution Imagery Archive”. Sensors (Basel) 8 (12): 7973–7981. https://doi.org/10.3390/s8127973
Prendergast, F. T., 2001. “Orientation for Archaeoastronomy – A Geodetic Perspective”. In Astronomy, Cosmology and Landscape: Proceedings of the SEAC 98 Meeting, Dublin, Ireland, September 1998, edited by C. L. N. Ruggles with F. Prendergast and T. Ray, 175–186. Bognor Regis, UK: Ocarina Books.
Prendergast F. T., 2015. “Techniques of Field Survey”. In Handbook of Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy, edited by C. L. N. Ruggles, 389–409. New York: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-6141-8_31
Quantum GIS, 2022. QGIS v.3.26.1 [online]. Accessed August 2022. http://www.qgis.org/en/site/
Rodríguez-Antón, A., A. César Gonzáles-Garcia and J. A. Belmonte, 2017. “Estimating the Reliability of Digital Data Acquisition in Cultural Astronomy: The Case of Roman North Africa”. Journal of Skyscape Archaeology 3 (2): 191–206. https://doi.org/10.1558/jsa.34685
Romain, W. F., 2004a. “Hopewell Geometric Enclosures: Gatherings of the Fourfold”. PhD diss., University of Leicester, UK.
Romain, W. F., 2004b. “Journey to the Center of the World: Astronomy, Geometry, and Cosmology at the Fort Ancient Enclosure”. In The Fort Ancient Earthworks: Prehistoric Lifeways of the Hopewell Culture in Southwestern Ohio, edited by R. P. Connolly and B. T. Lepper, 67–83. Columbus: Ohio Historical Society.
Romain, W. F., 2015. An Archaeology of the Sacred: Adena-Hopewell Astronomy and Landscape Archaeology. Olmsted Township, OH: Ancient Earthworks Project.
Romain, W. F., 2017. “The Archaeoastronomy and Feng Shui of Xanadu: Kublai Khan’s Imperial Mongolian Capital”. Time and Mind: The Journal of Archaeology, Consciousness and Culture 10 (2): 145–174. https://doi.org/10.1080/1751696X.2017.1310567
Romain, W. F., 2018. “Solstice Alignments at Angkor Wat and Nearby Temples: Connecting to the Cycles of Time”. Journal of Skyscape Archaeology 4 (2): 176–200. https://doi.org/10.1558/jsa.35712
Romain, W. F., 2019. “Lunar Alignments at Ur: Entanglements with the Moon God Nanna”. Journal of Skyscape Archaeology 5 (2): 151–176. https://doi.org/10.1558/jsa.39074
Romain, W. F., 2021a. “Following the Milky Way Path of Souls: An Archaeoastronomic Assessment of Cahokia’s Main Site Axis and Rattlesnake Causeway”. Journal of Skyscape Archaeology 7 (2): 187–212. https://doi.org/10.1558/jsa.18926
Romain, W. F., 2021b. “Subduing the Demons of Tibet: Geomantic Magic During the Yarlung Dynasty: A Landscape Archaeology Assessment”. Time and Mind: The Journal of Archaeology, Consciousness and Culture 14 (1): 33–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/1751696X.2021.1864946
Romain, W. F., 2022. “Tombs of the Tibetan Emperors: Divine Descent and Mortal Remains in the Chongye Valley”. Revue d’Etudes Tibétaines 63: 214–251.
Rossi, C. and G. Magli, 2019. “Wind, Sand and Water: The Orientation of the Late Roman Forts in the Kharga Oasis (Egyptian Western Desert)”. In Archaeoastronomy in the Roman World, edited by G. Magli, A. C. Gonzáles-Garcia, J. Belmonte Aviles and E. Antonello, 153–166. Cham, Switzerland: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97007-3_10
Ruggles, C. L. N., 1999. Astronomy in Prehistoric Britain and Ireland. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Satellite Imaging Corporation, 2022a. “Worldview-3 Satellite Sensor” [online]. Accessed April 2022. https://www.satimagingcorp.com/satellite-sensors/worldview-3/
Satellite Imaging Corporation, 2022b. “Worldview-4 Satellite Sensor” [online]. Accessed April 2022. https://www.satimagingcorp.com/satellite-sensors/geoeye-2/
Seeman, M. F., 2004. “Hopewell Art in Hopewell Places”. In Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand: Ancient Indian Art of the Woodlands, edited by R. F. Townsend and R. V. Sharp, 57–71. New Haven, CT: Art Institute of Chicago and Yale University Press.
Shaltout, M., 2014. “Studying the Orientations of Luxor Ancient Egyptian Temples Using QuickBird Images”. Journal of Earth Science and Engineering 4: 194–210.
Shermeyer, J. and A. van Etten, 2019. “The Effects of Super-Resolution on Object Detection Performance in Satellite Imagery”. In Proceedings of the IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Workshops [online]. Accessed July 2022. https://openaccess.thecvf.com/content_CVPRW_2019/papers/EarthVision/Shermeyer_The_Effects_of_Super-Resolution_on_Object_Detection_Performance_in_Satellite_CVPRW_2019_paper.pdf https://doi.org/10.1109/CVPRW.2019.00184
Sinachopoulos, D., 2019. “A Further Application of Google Earth in Studying the Orientation of Ancient Greek Monuments”. Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage 22 (2): 211–224.
Suunto, 2022. “Sunnto KB-14 / 360R G Compass (specs)” [online]. Accessed June 2022. https://www.suunto.com/en-us/Products/Compasses/Suunto-KB-14/Suunto-KB-14360R1/
TerraMetrics, 2022. “TruEarth Imagery” [online]. Accessed July 2022. https://terrametrics.com/v2/truearth-imagery/
Terrasaurus Aerial Photography, 2022. “Pixel Size Examples” [online]. Accessed July 2022. https://terrasaurus.ca/downloads/pixel-size-examples/
Van Sickle, J., 2017. Basic GIS Coordinates (3rd edition). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Wirth, J., E. Bonugli and M. Freund, 2015. “Assessment of the Accuracy of Google Earth Imagery for Use as a Tool in Accident Reconstruction”. SAE Technical Paper 2015-01-1435 [online]. https://doi.org/10.4271/2015-01-1435
Wolf, P. R. and C. D. Ghilani, 2002. Elementary Surveying: An Introduction to Geomantics (10th edition). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
