Beyond the Property Paradigm
Fragments for an Anarchist Approach to Archaeological Heritage
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1558/jca.33414Keywords:
Community Archaeology, Ethnography of Archaeology, Archaeological HeritageAbstract
Popular, legal, and academic relationships to archaeology are founded upon a property-based model of heritage which threatens to produce unsustainable consequences for heritage sites and stakeholders. The interrelations between the material culture of heritage, the scientific practice of archaeology, and the political economies of tourism and education are explored here in order to analyze the consequences of heritage development. In contrast to a property model of heritage, an ‘anarchistic’ model is proposed for handling heritage. Such a model implies that no individual or collectivity can own archaeological sites, information about those sites, or the material resources generated by tourism or research at heritage sites. Finally, sincere questions are raised about the ethics of intellectual property, heritage management, and the tourism and academic industries within both traditional and ‘anarchist’ models live.
References
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Clastres, P. 1989. Society Against the State: Essays in Political Anthropology, trans. R. Hurley and A. Stein. New York: Zone.
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Liu, L. and X. Chen. 2012. The Archaeology of China: From the Late Paleolithic to the Early Bronze Age. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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Loveluck, L. 2015. “Isil Destroys Roman-Era Columns in Palmyra During Execution.” The Telegraph, 26 October. Available online: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11956712/Isil-destroys-Roman-era-columns-in-Palmyra-during-execution.html
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Marcuse, H. 1955. Eros and Civilization: A Philosophical Inquiry into Freud. Boston: Beacon.
Marshall, Y. 2002. “What is Community Archaeology?” World Archaeology 34 (2): 211–219. https://doi.org/10.1080/0043824022000007062
Marx, K. 1978 [1932]. “Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844: Selections.” In The Marx-Engels Reader (2nd edition), edited by R. C. Tucker, 52–103. New York: W. W. Norton.
____. and F. Engels. 1978 [1867]. “The German Ideology.” In The Marx-Engels Reader (2nd edition), edited by R. C. Tucker, 146–200. New York: W. W. Norton.
McGimsey, C. 1972. Public Archaeology. New York: Seminar Press.
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____. 2008b. “Archaeology is More than Stones and Bones.” Paper presented at the 107th Meeting of the American Anthropological Association, San Francisco, 23 November.
____. and M. Vogel. 2012. “Archaeological Sites, Modern Communities, and Tourism.” Annals of Tourism Research 39: 1588–1611. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2012.04.002
Parks Australia. 2016. “Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park.” Available online: https://parksaustralia.gov.au/uluru/
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Routledge, B. 2014. Archaeology and State Theory: Subjects and Objects of Power. New York: Bloomsbury.
Sammells, C. 2009. Touristic Narratives and Historical Networks: Politics and Authority in Tiwanaku, Bolivia. PhD diss., Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago.
Smith, A. 2003 [1776]. The Wealth of Nations. New York: Bantam.
Supreme Council of Antiquities. n.d. “Supreme Council of Antiquities: Recovering Stolen Treasures.” Available online: http://www.sca-egypt.org/eng/rst_mp.htm
Thomas, D. H. 2000. Skull Wars: Kennewick Man, Archaeology, and the Battle for Native American Identity. New York: Basic Books.
Tourism of Cambodia. 2017. “Angkor Archaeological Park - Angkor Wat Guide.” Available online: http://www.tourismcambodia.com/attractions/angkor.htm
Trigger, B. 1984. “Alternative Archaeologies: Nationalist, Colonialist, Imperialist.” Man (New Series) 19 (2): 335–370. https://doi.org/10.2307/2802176
UNESCO. n.d. “Kakadu National Park.” Available online: http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/147
Vogel, M. 2011. “Style and Interregional Interaction: Ceramics from the Casma Capital of El Purgatorio.” Ñawpa Pacha, Journal of Andean Archaeology 31 (2): 201–224. https://doi.org/10.1179/naw.2011.31.2.201
____. 2016. The Casma City of El Purgatorio: Ancient Urbanism in the Andes. Gainesville: University Press of Florida.
____. and D. Pacifico. 2004. “From Theory to Practice – Public Interest Archaeology in Peru.” Anthropology in Action 11 (2–3): 44–53.
____. 2011. “Arquitectura de El Purgatorio: Capital de la Cultura Casma.” In ANDES 8: Boletín del Centro de Estudios Precolombinos de la Universidad de Varsovia; Arqueología de la Costa Ancash, edited by I. Ghezzi and M. Gierz, 357–397. Warsaw: University of Warsaw. https://doi.org/10.4000/books.ifea.8019
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Anderson, B. 1983. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. London: Verso.
Anico, M. 2009. “Representing Identities at Local Municipal Museums: Cultural Forums or Identity Bunkers.” In Heritage and Identity: Engagement and Demission in the Contemporary World, edited by M. Anico and E. Peralta, 63–75. London and New York: Routledge.
Associated Press. 2013. “Pyramid in Peru Torn Down by Developers.” The Guardian, 4 July. Available online: http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/04/pyramid-peru-torn-down-el-paraiso
Atalay, S. 2010. “‘We Don’t Talk about Çatalhöyük, We Live It’: Sustainable Archaeological
Practice through Community-Based Participatory Research.” World Archaeology 42 (3) :418–429. https://doi.org/10.1080/00438243.2010.497394
Atwood, R. 2004. Stealing History: Tomb Raiders, Smugglers, and the Looting of the Ancient World. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Australian Government Department of Environment and Energy. n.d. “World Heritage Places – Kakadu National Park.” Available online: http://www.environment.gov.au/heritage/places/world/kakadu
Bakunin, M. 2003 [1882]. “From God and the State.” In The Communist Manifesto and Other Revolutionary Writings: Marx, Marat, Paine, Mao, Gandhi, and Others, edited by B. Blaisedell, 187–199. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications.
Brooks, M. 2007. “Reconnecting the Present with Its Past: The Doukhobor Pit House Archaeology Project.” In Archaeology as a Tool of Civic Engagement, edited by B. Little and P. Shackel, 203–222. Plymouth, UK: Altamira Press.
Carman, J. 2005. Against Cultural Property: Archaeology, Heritage and Ownership. London: Duckworth.
Clastres, P. 1989. Society Against the State: Essays in Political Anthropology, trans. R. Hurley and A. Stein. New York: Zone.
____. 1994 [1980]. Archaeology of Violence, trans. J. Herman. New York: Semiotext(e).
Comaroff, J. and J. Comaroff. 1991. Of Revelation and Revolution vol. 1: Christianity, Colonialism and Consciousness in South Africa. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Egyptian Tourism Authority. 2017. “Giza Plateau.” Available online: http://www.egypt.travel/attractions/giza-plateau/
English Heritage. n.d. “Stonehenge.” Available online: http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/stonehenge/
Foucault, M. 1975. Discipline and Punish, trans. A. Sheridan. New York: Vintage.
____. 2007. Security, Territory and populations: Lectures at the College de France 1977-78, trans. G. Burchell. Houndsmills, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
Graeber, D. 2004. Fragments of an Anarchist Anthropology. Chicago: Prickly Paradigm Press.
Gramsci, A. 1971. Selections from the Prison Notebooks, edited and translated by Q. Hoare and G. N. Smith, 175–185. New York: International Publishers
____. 1975. Quaderni del carcere. 4 vols, edited by V. Gerratana. Turin: Einaudi.
Hallowell, J. 2006. “Moral Arguments on Subsistence Digging.” In The Ethics of Archaeology: Philosophical Perspectives on Archaeological Practice, edited by C. Scarre and G. Scarre, 69–93. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511817656.005
Hardt, M. and A. Negri. 2000. Empire. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Harrison, R. 2010. “What is Heritage?” In Understanding the Politics of Heritage, edited by R. Harrison, 5–42. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
Hegmon, M. 2003. “Setting Theoretical Egos Aside: Issues and Theory in North American Archaeology.” American Antiquity 68 (2): 213–243. https://doi.org/10.2307/3557078
Hicks, D. and L. McAtackney. 2007. “Introduction: Landscapes as Standpoints.” In Envisioning Landscape: Situations and Standpoints in Archaeology and Heritage, edited by D. Hicks, L. McAtackney and G. Fairclough, 13–29. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press.
Hodder, I. 2003. Reading the Past: Current Approaches to Interpretation in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511814211
Hutchings, R. and M. La Salle. 2015. “Archaeology as Disaster Capitalism.” International Journal of Historical Archaeology 19 (4): 699–720. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10761-015-0308-3
Instituto Nacional de Cultura. 2007. “Ley General del Patrimonio de la Nación 28296 y su Reglamento.” Available online: http://www2.congreso.gob.pe/sicr/cendocbib/con2_uibd.nsf/562A9CCF932F0F62052577E300711E65/$FILE/2Ley_28296.pdf
Jones, S. 1997. The Archaeology of Ethnicity: Constructing Identities in the Past and Present. London and New York: Routledge.
Keitumetse, S., G. Matlapeng and L. Monamo. 2007. “Cultural Landscapes, Communities and World Heritage: In Pursuit of the Local in the Tsodilo Hills, Botswana.” In Envisioning Landscape: Situations and Standpoints in Archaeology and Heritage, edited by D. Hicks, L. McAtackney and G. Fairclough, 101–119. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press.
Kropotkin, P. 2008 [1892]. The Conquest of Bread. Oakland, CA: AK Press.
Lee, J. 2012. “Vancouver Mayor and Police Chief Blame Stanley Cup Riot on Anarchists.” Vancouver Sun, 11 June. Available online: http://www.vancouversun.com/news/Vancouver+mayor+police+chief+blame+Stanley+riot+anarchists/4958411/story.html. Accessed October 20, 2014.
Little, B. and P. Shackel, eds. 2007. Archaeology as a Tool of Civic Engagement. Plymouth, UK: Altamira Press.
Liu, L. and X. Chen. 2012. The Archaeology of China: From the Late Paleolithic to the Early Bronze Age. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Loayza, J. 2009. “En Lima más de cincuenta asentamientos humanos esperan titular sus propiedades.” La Republica, 15 February. Available online: http://larepublica.pe/15-02-2009/en-lima-mas-de-cincuenta-asentamientos-humanos-esperan-titular-sus-propiedades
Locke, J. 1988 [1689]. Two Treatises of Government. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511810268
Loveluck, L. 2015. “Isil Destroys Roman-Era Columns in Palmyra During Execution.” The Telegraph, 26 October. Available online: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11956712/Isil-destroys-Roman-era-columns-in-Palmyra-during-execution.html
Lowenthal, D. 1997. The Heritage Crusade and the Spoils of History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lynott, M. 1997. “Ethical Principles and Archaeological Practice: Development of an Ethics Policy.” American Antiquity 62 (4): 589–599. https://doi.org/10.2307/281879
Marcuse, H. 1955. Eros and Civilization: A Philosophical Inquiry into Freud. Boston: Beacon.
Marshall, Y. 2002. “What is Community Archaeology?” World Archaeology 34 (2): 211–219. https://doi.org/10.1080/0043824022000007062
Marx, K. 1978 [1932]. “Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844: Selections.” In The Marx-Engels Reader (2nd edition), edited by R. C. Tucker, 52–103. New York: W. W. Norton.
____. and F. Engels. 1978 [1867]. “The German Ideology.” In The Marx-Engels Reader (2nd edition), edited by R. C. Tucker, 146–200. New York: W. W. Norton.
McGimsey, C. 1972. Public Archaeology. New York: Seminar Press.
Meskell, L. 2007. “Falling Walls and Mending Fences: Archaeological Ethnography in the Limpopo.” Journal of Southern African Studies 33 (2): 383–400.
Ministerio de Cultura. 2017. “Machu Picchu.” Available online: www.cultura.gob.pe/es/tags/machu-picchu
Pai, H. I. 2013. Heritage Management in Korea and Japan: The Politics of Antiquity and Identity. Seattle: University of Washington.
Pacifico, D. 2008a. Archaeology and the Public’s Interests at El Purgatorio, Peru. Unpublished MA thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago.
____. 2008b. “Archaeology is More than Stones and Bones.” Paper presented at the 107th Meeting of the American Anthropological Association, San Francisco, 23 November.
____. and M. Vogel. 2012. “Archaeological Sites, Modern Communities, and Tourism.” Annals of Tourism Research 39: 1588–1611. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2012.04.002
Parks Australia. 2016. “Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park.” Available online: https://parksaustralia.gov.au/uluru/
Pauketat, T. 2009. Cahokia: Ancient America’s Great City on the Mississippi. New York: Penguin.
Poggioli, C. 2017. “For Italy’s Art Police, An Ongoing Fight Against Pillage Of Priceless Works.” All Things Considered, 11 January. Available online: http://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2017/01/11/508031006/for-italys-art-police-an-ongoing-fight-against-pillage-of-priceless-works
Pozorski, S. and T. Pozorski. 2008. “Early Cultural Complexity on the Coast of Peru.” In Handbook of South American Archaeology, eds. H. Silverman and W. H. Isbell, 607–631. Springer: New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-74907-5_31
Proudhon, P.-J. 2003 [1840]. “What is Property? An Inquiry into the Principle of Right and of Government.” In The Communist Manifesto and Other Revolutionary Writings: Marx, Marat, Paine, Mao, Gandhi, and Others, edited by B. Blaisedell, 102–122. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications.
Rousseau, J.-J. 1997 [1755]. “Discourse on the Origin and Foundations of Inequality Among Men or Second Discourse.” In Rousseau: The Discourses and Other Early Political Writings, edited and translated by V. Gourevitch, 111–231. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Routledge, B. 2014. Archaeology and State Theory: Subjects and Objects of Power. New York: Bloomsbury.
Sammells, C. 2009. Touristic Narratives and Historical Networks: Politics and Authority in Tiwanaku, Bolivia. PhD diss., Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago.
Smith, A. 2003 [1776]. The Wealth of Nations. New York: Bantam.
Supreme Council of Antiquities. n.d. “Supreme Council of Antiquities: Recovering Stolen Treasures.” Available online: http://www.sca-egypt.org/eng/rst_mp.htm
Thomas, D. H. 2000. Skull Wars: Kennewick Man, Archaeology, and the Battle for Native American Identity. New York: Basic Books.
Tourism of Cambodia. 2017. “Angkor Archaeological Park - Angkor Wat Guide.” Available online: http://www.tourismcambodia.com/attractions/angkor.htm
Trigger, B. 1984. “Alternative Archaeologies: Nationalist, Colonialist, Imperialist.” Man (New Series) 19 (2): 335–370. https://doi.org/10.2307/2802176
UNESCO. n.d. “Kakadu National Park.” Available online: http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/147
Vogel, M. 2011. “Style and Interregional Interaction: Ceramics from the Casma Capital of El Purgatorio.” Ñawpa Pacha, Journal of Andean Archaeology 31 (2): 201–224. https://doi.org/10.1179/naw.2011.31.2.201
____. 2016. The Casma City of El Purgatorio: Ancient Urbanism in the Andes. Gainesville: University Press of Florida.
____. and D. Pacifico. 2004. “From Theory to Practice – Public Interest Archaeology in Peru.” Anthropology in Action 11 (2–3): 44–53.
____. 2011. “Arquitectura de El Purgatorio: Capital de la Cultura Casma.” In ANDES 8: Boletín del Centro de Estudios Precolombinos de la Universidad de Varsovia; Arqueología de la Costa Ancash, edited by I. Ghezzi and M. Gierz, 357–397. Warsaw: University of Warsaw. https://doi.org/10.4000/books.ifea.8019
Weber, M. 1946. From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, edited and translated by H. H. Gerth and C. W. Mills. New York: Oxford University Press.
Young, L. 1999. “Australian and International Laws on Export Controls for Cultural Heritage.” Paper presented at Art Crime Protecting Art: Protecting Artists and Protecting Consumers Conference convened by the Australian Institute of Criminology and held in Sydney, 2–3 December. Available online: http://www.aic.gov.au/media_library/conferences/artcrime/young.pdf
Published
2019-01-26
Issue
Section
Anarchy and Archaeology Forum - OPEN ACCESS
How to Cite
Pacifico, D. (2019). Beyond the Property Paradigm: Fragments for an Anarchist Approach to Archaeological Heritage. Journal of Contemporary Archaeology, 5(2), 283-302. https://doi.org/10.1558/jca.33414
