Gender and facework
Linguistic practices by Japanese male superiors in the workplace
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1558/genl.v7i2.233Keywords:
japanese, workplace, men's language, facework, pragmatic meaningAbstract
This study qualitatively examines linguistic practices of Japanese male superiors in interactions with male subordinates in a Japanese workplace, focusing particularly on their use of two linguistic forms: Vroot+(y)oo (Let’s do X) and Vroot+ro/e (Do X!). The study illustrates two practices of these male superiors: first, they use Vroot+(y)oo, which is not strongly associated with normative men’s language, in interactions where normative men’s language is otherwise used. Second, they utilize a strongly male-associated form, Vroot+ro/e, in interactions that otherwise involve feminine-associated stylistic features. The analysis shows how these two linguistic forms, when used in such interactions, contribute to male superiors’ facework. Confirming a claim made in previous research, this study suggests that speakers use normative language less associated with their own gender in order to convey a specific pragmatic meaning and to achieve certain communicative ends in ongoing interactions.
References
Arundale, R. B. (2010) Constituting face in conversation: Face, facework, and interactional achievement. Journal of Pragmatics 42: 2078–2105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2009.12.021
Backhaus, P. (2009) Politeness in institutional elderly care in Japan: a crosscultural comparison. Journal of Politeness Research 5: 53–71.
Backhaus, P. (2010) Time to get up: Compliance-gaining in a Japanese eldercare facility. Journal of Asian Pacific Communication 20: 69–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/japc.20.1.04bac
Brown, P. and Levinson, S. (1987) Politeness: Some Universals in Language Use. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cameron, D. (1998) Performing gender identity: Young men’s talk and the construction of heterosexual masculinity. In J. Coates (ed.) Language and Gender: A Reader 270–284. Oxford: Blackwell.
Cameron, D. (2000) Styling the worker: Gender and the commodification of language in the globalized service economy. Journal of Sociolinguistics 4: 323–347. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-9481.00119
Coates, J. (2007) Talk in a play frame: More on laughter and intimacy. Journal of Pragmatics 39: 29–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2006.05.003
Cook, H. M. (1999) Situational meanings of Japanese social deixis: The mixed use of the masu and plain forms. Journal of Linguistic Anthropology 8: 87–110. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/jlin.1998.8.1.87
Furo, H. (1996) Linguistic conflict of Japanese women: Is that a request or an order? In N. warner, J. ahlers, L. Bilmes, M. Oliver, S. wertheim and M. Chen (eds) Proceedings of the Fourth Berkeley Women and Language Conference 247–259. Berkeley: Berkeley women and Language Group.
Gendai Nihongo kenkyuu kai (Modern Japanese Study Group) (ed.) (2011) Gappon: Josei no Kotoba/Dansei no Kotoba Shokuba-Hen (A Bound Book: Women’s Language/Men’s Language in the Workplace). Tokyo: Hituzi.
Geyer, N. (2010) Teasing and ambivalent face in Japanese multi-party discourse. Journal of Pragmatics 42: 2120–2130. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2009.12.015
Group Jamashii (ed.) (1998) Kyoshi to Gakushuusha no tame no Nihongo Bunkei Jiten (A Dictionary of Japanese Grammar for Teachers and Learners). Tokyo: kuroshio.
Haugh, M. (2005) what does ‘face’ mean to the Japanese? Understanding the import of ‘face’ in Japanese business interaction. In F. Bargiela-Chiappini and M. Gotti (eds) Asian Business Discourse 211–239. Berlin: Peter Lang.
Haugh, M. (2007) Emic conceptualizations of (im)politeness and face in Japanese: Implications for the discursive negotiation of second language learner identities. Journal of Pragmatics 39: 657–680. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2006.12.005
Haugh, M. (2010) Jocular mockery, (dis)affiliation, and face. Journal of Pragmatics 42: 2106–2119. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2009.12.018
Holmes, J. (1984) Modifying illocutionary force. Journal of Pragmatics 8: 345–365. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0378-2166(84)90028-6
Holmes, J. (2000) Politeness, power, and provocation: How humour functions in the workplace. Discourse Studies 2: 159–185. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1461445600002002002
Holmes, J. (2006a) Gendered Talk at Work: Constructing Gender Identity through Workplace Discourse. Malden, Ma: Blackwell.
Holmes, J. (2006b) Sharing a laugh: Pragmatic aspects of humor and gender in the workplace. Journal of Pragmatics 38: 26–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2005.06.007
Ide, S. (1982) Japanese sociolinguistics: politeness and women’s language. Lingua 57: 357–385. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0024-3841(82)90009-2
Ide, S. (1990) How and why do women speak more politely in Japanese? In S. Ide and N. H. McGloin (eds) Aspects of Japanese Women’s Language 63–79. Tokyo: kuroshio.
Ide, S. and Yoshida, M. (1999) Sociolinguistics: Honorifics and gender differences. In N. Tsujimura (ed.) The Handbook of Japanese Linguistics 444–478. Malden, Ma: Blackwell.
Inoue, M. (2006) Vicarious Language: Gender and Linguistic Modernity in Japan. Berkeley/Los angeles: University of California Press.
Johnson, Y. (2008) Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar: Comprehensive Acquisition. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press.
Kamijo, a. (1994) Tokyo-To adachi-ku ni okeru be, danbe (Be and danbe in adachi ward, Tokyo). Journal of Faculty of Liberal Arts, Shinshu University 28: 157–166. Retrieved on 24 June 2012 from http://hdl.handle.net/10091/4498
Kiesling, S. F. (2005) Homosocial desire in men’s talk: Balancing and re-creating cultural discourses of masculinity. Language in Society 34: 695–726. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0047404505050268
Kinsui, S. (2010) ‘Otoko kotoba’ no rekishi (History of ‘men’s language’). In M. Nakamura (ed.) Jendaa de Manabu Gengogaku (Linguistics Learned by Gender) 35–49. kyoto: Sekai Shiso Sha.
Matsumoto, Y. (2004) alternative femininity: Personae of middle-aged mothers. In S. Okamoto and J. S. Shibamoto Smith (eds) Japanese Language, Gender, and Ideology: Cultural Models and Real People 240–255. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.
McGloin, H. N. (1990) Sex difference and sentence-final particles. In S. Ide and N. H. McGloin (eds) Aspects of Japanese Women’s Language 23–41. Tokyo: kuroshio.
Mills, S. and Mullany, L. (2011) Language, Gender and Feminism: Theory, Methodology and Practice. Oxon: Routledge.
Miyazaki, a. (2004) Japanese junior high school girls’ and boys’ first-person pronoun use and their social world. In S. Okamoto and J. S. Shibamoto Smith (eds) Japanese Language, Gender, and Ideology: Cultural Models and Real People 256–274. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.
Mullany, L. (2004) Gender, politeness and institutional power roles: Humour as a tactic to gain compliance in workplace business meetings. Multilingua 23: 13–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/mult.2004.002
Mullany, L. (2007) Gendered Discourse in the Professional Workplace. Basingstoke, Uk: Palgrave Macmillan. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9780230592902
Nakamura, M. (2008) Masculinity and national language: The silent construction of a dominant language ideology. Gender and Language 2: 25–50.
Nakamura, M. (2010a) ‘Onna kotoba’ no rekishi (History of ‘women’s language’). In M. Nakamura (ed.) Jendaa de Manabu Gengogaku (Linguistics Learned by Gender) 19–34. kyoto: Sekai Shiso Sha.
Nakamura, M. (2010b) women’s and men’s languages as heterosexual resource: Power and intimacy in Japanese spam e-mail. In J. Holmes and M. Marra (eds) Femininity, Feminism and Gendered Discourse 125–144. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Okamoto, S. (1995) ‘Tasteless’ Japanese: Less ‘feminine’ speech among young Japanese women. In k. Hall and M. Bucholtz (eds) Gender Articulated: Language and the Socially Constructed Self 297–325. New York: Routledge.
Okamoto, S. (2004) Ideology in linguistic practice and analysis: Gender and politeness in Japanese revisited. In S. Okamoto and J. S. Shibamoto Smith (eds) Japanese Language, Gender, and Ideology: Cultural Models and Real People 38–56. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.
Okamoto, S. and Sato, S. (1992) Less feminine speech among young Japanese females. In k. Hall, M. Bucholtz, and B. Moonwomon (eds) Locating Power: Proceedings of the Second Berkeley Women and Language Conference 478–488. Berkeley: Berkeley women and Language Group.
Okamoto, S. and Shibamoto Smith, J. S. (2008) Constructing linguistic femininity in contemporary Japan: scholarly and popular representations. Gender and Language 2: 87–112.
Ostermann, a. C. (2003) Communities of practice at work: Gender, facework and the power of habitus at an all-female police station and a feminist crisis intervention center in Brazil. Discourse & Society 14: 473–505. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0957926503014004004
Partington, a. (2008) Teasing at the white House: a corpus-assisted study of face work in performing and responding to teases. Text & Talk 28: 771–792. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/TEXT.2008.039
Rogerson-Revell, P. (2007) Humour in business: a double-edged sword. a study of humour and style shifting in intercultural business meetings. Journal of Pragmatics 39: 4–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2006.09.005
Sato, T. (2008) wakamono no hougen ni miru gengo henka: Gunma ken no shin hougen o rei ni (Language change in young people’s use of dialects: New dialects in Gunma prefecture as examples). Kyoai Gakuen Maebashi Kokusai Daigaku Ronshuu 8: 219–233. Retrieved on 21 June 2012 from http://www.kyoai.ac.jp/college/ronshuu/no-08/sato.pdf
Shibamoto Smith, J. S. (2003) Gendered structures in Japanese. In M. Hellinger (ed.) Gender across Languages: The Linguistic Representation of Women and Men, Volume 3: 201–225. Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Shibamoto Smith, J. S. (2004) Language and gender in the (hetero) romance: ‘reading’ the ideal hero/ine through lovers’ dialogue in Japanese romance fiction. In S. Okamoto and J. S. Shibamoto Smith (eds) Japanese Language, Gender, and Ideology: Cultural Models and Real People 113–130. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.
Sturtz Sreetharan, C. (2004a) Students, sarariiman (pl.), and seniors: Japanese men’s use of ‘manly’ speech register. Language in Society 33: 81–107.
Sturtz Sreetharan, C. (2004b) Japanese men’s linguistic stereotypes and realities: Conversations from the kansai and kanto regions. In S. Okamoto and J. S. Shibamoto Smith (eds) Japanese Language, Gender, and Ideology: Cultural Models and Real People 275–289. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.
Sturtz Sreetharan, C. L. (2006) Gentlemanly gender? Japanese men’s use of clause-final politeness in casual conversations. Journal of Sociolinguistics 10: 70–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-6441.2006.00318.x
Sturtz Sreetharan, C. L. (2009) Ore and omae: Japanese men’s uses of first- and second-person pronouns. Pragmatics 19: 253–278.
Sunaoshi, Y. (1994) Mild directives work effectively: Japanese women in command. In M. Bucholtz, a. C. Liang, L. a. Sutton, and C. Hines (eds) Cultural Performances: Proceedings of the Third Berkeley Women and Language Conference 678–690. Berkeley: University of California.
Sunaoshi, Y. (2004) Farm women’s professional discourse in Ibaraki. In S. Okamoto and J. S. Shibamoto Smith (eds) Japanese Language, Gender, and Ideology: Cultural Models and Real People 187–204. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.
Takano, S. (2005) Re-examining linguistic power: Strategic uses of directives by professional Japanese women in positions of authority and leadership. Journal of Pragmatics 37: 633–666. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2004.06.007
Tsujimura, N. (1996) An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. Cambridge: Blackwell.
Ueno, J. (2006) Shojo and adult women: a linguistic analysis of gender identity in manga (Japanese comics). Women and Language 29: 16–25.
Wetzel, P. (1985) In-group/out-group deixis: Situational variation in the verbs of giving and receiving in Japanese. In J. P. Forgas (ed.) Language and Social Situations 141–157. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Yabuuchi, a. (2004) Face in Chinese, Japanese, and U.S. american cultures. Journal of Asian Pacific Communication 14: 261–297.
Backhaus, P. (2009) Politeness in institutional elderly care in Japan: a crosscultural comparison. Journal of Politeness Research 5: 53–71.
Backhaus, P. (2010) Time to get up: Compliance-gaining in a Japanese eldercare facility. Journal of Asian Pacific Communication 20: 69–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/japc.20.1.04bac
Brown, P. and Levinson, S. (1987) Politeness: Some Universals in Language Use. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cameron, D. (1998) Performing gender identity: Young men’s talk and the construction of heterosexual masculinity. In J. Coates (ed.) Language and Gender: A Reader 270–284. Oxford: Blackwell.
Cameron, D. (2000) Styling the worker: Gender and the commodification of language in the globalized service economy. Journal of Sociolinguistics 4: 323–347. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-9481.00119
Coates, J. (2007) Talk in a play frame: More on laughter and intimacy. Journal of Pragmatics 39: 29–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2006.05.003
Cook, H. M. (1999) Situational meanings of Japanese social deixis: The mixed use of the masu and plain forms. Journal of Linguistic Anthropology 8: 87–110. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/jlin.1998.8.1.87
Furo, H. (1996) Linguistic conflict of Japanese women: Is that a request or an order? In N. warner, J. ahlers, L. Bilmes, M. Oliver, S. wertheim and M. Chen (eds) Proceedings of the Fourth Berkeley Women and Language Conference 247–259. Berkeley: Berkeley women and Language Group.
Gendai Nihongo kenkyuu kai (Modern Japanese Study Group) (ed.) (2011) Gappon: Josei no Kotoba/Dansei no Kotoba Shokuba-Hen (A Bound Book: Women’s Language/Men’s Language in the Workplace). Tokyo: Hituzi.
Geyer, N. (2010) Teasing and ambivalent face in Japanese multi-party discourse. Journal of Pragmatics 42: 2120–2130. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2009.12.015
Group Jamashii (ed.) (1998) Kyoshi to Gakushuusha no tame no Nihongo Bunkei Jiten (A Dictionary of Japanese Grammar for Teachers and Learners). Tokyo: kuroshio.
Haugh, M. (2005) what does ‘face’ mean to the Japanese? Understanding the import of ‘face’ in Japanese business interaction. In F. Bargiela-Chiappini and M. Gotti (eds) Asian Business Discourse 211–239. Berlin: Peter Lang.
Haugh, M. (2007) Emic conceptualizations of (im)politeness and face in Japanese: Implications for the discursive negotiation of second language learner identities. Journal of Pragmatics 39: 657–680. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2006.12.005
Haugh, M. (2010) Jocular mockery, (dis)affiliation, and face. Journal of Pragmatics 42: 2106–2119. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2009.12.018
Holmes, J. (1984) Modifying illocutionary force. Journal of Pragmatics 8: 345–365. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0378-2166(84)90028-6
Holmes, J. (2000) Politeness, power, and provocation: How humour functions in the workplace. Discourse Studies 2: 159–185. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1461445600002002002
Holmes, J. (2006a) Gendered Talk at Work: Constructing Gender Identity through Workplace Discourse. Malden, Ma: Blackwell.
Holmes, J. (2006b) Sharing a laugh: Pragmatic aspects of humor and gender in the workplace. Journal of Pragmatics 38: 26–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2005.06.007
Ide, S. (1982) Japanese sociolinguistics: politeness and women’s language. Lingua 57: 357–385. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0024-3841(82)90009-2
Ide, S. (1990) How and why do women speak more politely in Japanese? In S. Ide and N. H. McGloin (eds) Aspects of Japanese Women’s Language 63–79. Tokyo: kuroshio.
Ide, S. and Yoshida, M. (1999) Sociolinguistics: Honorifics and gender differences. In N. Tsujimura (ed.) The Handbook of Japanese Linguistics 444–478. Malden, Ma: Blackwell.
Inoue, M. (2006) Vicarious Language: Gender and Linguistic Modernity in Japan. Berkeley/Los angeles: University of California Press.
Johnson, Y. (2008) Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar: Comprehensive Acquisition. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press.
Kamijo, a. (1994) Tokyo-To adachi-ku ni okeru be, danbe (Be and danbe in adachi ward, Tokyo). Journal of Faculty of Liberal Arts, Shinshu University 28: 157–166. Retrieved on 24 June 2012 from http://hdl.handle.net/10091/4498
Kiesling, S. F. (2005) Homosocial desire in men’s talk: Balancing and re-creating cultural discourses of masculinity. Language in Society 34: 695–726. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0047404505050268
Kinsui, S. (2010) ‘Otoko kotoba’ no rekishi (History of ‘men’s language’). In M. Nakamura (ed.) Jendaa de Manabu Gengogaku (Linguistics Learned by Gender) 35–49. kyoto: Sekai Shiso Sha.
Matsumoto, Y. (2004) alternative femininity: Personae of middle-aged mothers. In S. Okamoto and J. S. Shibamoto Smith (eds) Japanese Language, Gender, and Ideology: Cultural Models and Real People 240–255. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.
McGloin, H. N. (1990) Sex difference and sentence-final particles. In S. Ide and N. H. McGloin (eds) Aspects of Japanese Women’s Language 23–41. Tokyo: kuroshio.
Mills, S. and Mullany, L. (2011) Language, Gender and Feminism: Theory, Methodology and Practice. Oxon: Routledge.
Miyazaki, a. (2004) Japanese junior high school girls’ and boys’ first-person pronoun use and their social world. In S. Okamoto and J. S. Shibamoto Smith (eds) Japanese Language, Gender, and Ideology: Cultural Models and Real People 256–274. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.
Mullany, L. (2004) Gender, politeness and institutional power roles: Humour as a tactic to gain compliance in workplace business meetings. Multilingua 23: 13–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/mult.2004.002
Mullany, L. (2007) Gendered Discourse in the Professional Workplace. Basingstoke, Uk: Palgrave Macmillan. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9780230592902
Nakamura, M. (2008) Masculinity and national language: The silent construction of a dominant language ideology. Gender and Language 2: 25–50.
Nakamura, M. (2010a) ‘Onna kotoba’ no rekishi (History of ‘women’s language’). In M. Nakamura (ed.) Jendaa de Manabu Gengogaku (Linguistics Learned by Gender) 19–34. kyoto: Sekai Shiso Sha.
Nakamura, M. (2010b) women’s and men’s languages as heterosexual resource: Power and intimacy in Japanese spam e-mail. In J. Holmes and M. Marra (eds) Femininity, Feminism and Gendered Discourse 125–144. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Okamoto, S. (1995) ‘Tasteless’ Japanese: Less ‘feminine’ speech among young Japanese women. In k. Hall and M. Bucholtz (eds) Gender Articulated: Language and the Socially Constructed Self 297–325. New York: Routledge.
Okamoto, S. (2004) Ideology in linguistic practice and analysis: Gender and politeness in Japanese revisited. In S. Okamoto and J. S. Shibamoto Smith (eds) Japanese Language, Gender, and Ideology: Cultural Models and Real People 38–56. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.
Okamoto, S. and Sato, S. (1992) Less feminine speech among young Japanese females. In k. Hall, M. Bucholtz, and B. Moonwomon (eds) Locating Power: Proceedings of the Second Berkeley Women and Language Conference 478–488. Berkeley: Berkeley women and Language Group.
Okamoto, S. and Shibamoto Smith, J. S. (2008) Constructing linguistic femininity in contemporary Japan: scholarly and popular representations. Gender and Language 2: 87–112.
Ostermann, a. C. (2003) Communities of practice at work: Gender, facework and the power of habitus at an all-female police station and a feminist crisis intervention center in Brazil. Discourse & Society 14: 473–505. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0957926503014004004
Partington, a. (2008) Teasing at the white House: a corpus-assisted study of face work in performing and responding to teases. Text & Talk 28: 771–792. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/TEXT.2008.039
Rogerson-Revell, P. (2007) Humour in business: a double-edged sword. a study of humour and style shifting in intercultural business meetings. Journal of Pragmatics 39: 4–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2006.09.005
Sato, T. (2008) wakamono no hougen ni miru gengo henka: Gunma ken no shin hougen o rei ni (Language change in young people’s use of dialects: New dialects in Gunma prefecture as examples). Kyoai Gakuen Maebashi Kokusai Daigaku Ronshuu 8: 219–233. Retrieved on 21 June 2012 from http://www.kyoai.ac.jp/college/ronshuu/no-08/sato.pdf
Shibamoto Smith, J. S. (2003) Gendered structures in Japanese. In M. Hellinger (ed.) Gender across Languages: The Linguistic Representation of Women and Men, Volume 3: 201–225. Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Shibamoto Smith, J. S. (2004) Language and gender in the (hetero) romance: ‘reading’ the ideal hero/ine through lovers’ dialogue in Japanese romance fiction. In S. Okamoto and J. S. Shibamoto Smith (eds) Japanese Language, Gender, and Ideology: Cultural Models and Real People 113–130. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.
Sturtz Sreetharan, C. (2004a) Students, sarariiman (pl.), and seniors: Japanese men’s use of ‘manly’ speech register. Language in Society 33: 81–107.
Sturtz Sreetharan, C. (2004b) Japanese men’s linguistic stereotypes and realities: Conversations from the kansai and kanto regions. In S. Okamoto and J. S. Shibamoto Smith (eds) Japanese Language, Gender, and Ideology: Cultural Models and Real People 275–289. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.
Sturtz Sreetharan, C. L. (2006) Gentlemanly gender? Japanese men’s use of clause-final politeness in casual conversations. Journal of Sociolinguistics 10: 70–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-6441.2006.00318.x
Sturtz Sreetharan, C. L. (2009) Ore and omae: Japanese men’s uses of first- and second-person pronouns. Pragmatics 19: 253–278.
Sunaoshi, Y. (1994) Mild directives work effectively: Japanese women in command. In M. Bucholtz, a. C. Liang, L. a. Sutton, and C. Hines (eds) Cultural Performances: Proceedings of the Third Berkeley Women and Language Conference 678–690. Berkeley: University of California.
Sunaoshi, Y. (2004) Farm women’s professional discourse in Ibaraki. In S. Okamoto and J. S. Shibamoto Smith (eds) Japanese Language, Gender, and Ideology: Cultural Models and Real People 187–204. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.
Takano, S. (2005) Re-examining linguistic power: Strategic uses of directives by professional Japanese women in positions of authority and leadership. Journal of Pragmatics 37: 633–666. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2004.06.007
Tsujimura, N. (1996) An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. Cambridge: Blackwell.
Ueno, J. (2006) Shojo and adult women: a linguistic analysis of gender identity in manga (Japanese comics). Women and Language 29: 16–25.
Wetzel, P. (1985) In-group/out-group deixis: Situational variation in the verbs of giving and receiving in Japanese. In J. P. Forgas (ed.) Language and Social Situations 141–157. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Yabuuchi, a. (2004) Face in Chinese, Japanese, and U.S. american cultures. Journal of Asian Pacific Communication 14: 261–297.
Published
2013-07-12
Issue
Section
Articles
How to Cite
Saito, J. (2013). Gender and facework: Linguistic practices by Japanese male superiors in the workplace. Gender and Language, 7(2), 233-261. https://doi.org/10.1558/genl.v7i2.233
