Constructing Linguistic Femininity in Contemporary Japan
Scholarly and Popular Representations
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1558/genl.v2i1.87Keywords:
representations of linguistic femininity, linguistic norms, language ideology, indexicalityAbstract
This article examines the constitution of ‘Japanese women’s language,’ or joseego, as a prescriptive linguistic norm for women through an analysis of scholarly and media representations of linguistic femininity in contemporary Japan. We distinguish two kinds of interrelated norms as constituting linguistic femininity: norms centered around general stylistic features such as politeness, gentleness, and refinement (the first-order norms) and those specificying particular linguistic forms including phonological, morphological, and lexical features (the second-order norms). Our analysis shows that both scholarly and media representations tend to share the dominant ideology of feminine speech in terms of general stylistic features and that they both link those features to specific linguistic forms in terms of Standard Japanese, but that the media representations are relatively more flexible in this linkage than the former and allows more room for contestation and the negotiation of alternative femininities. Through this analysis, we discuss the complex indexical process in which linguistic forms are ideologically linked to femininity as well as the tenuous nature of this linkage.
References
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Gendai Nihongo Kenkyukai (ed.) (2002) Dansee no Kotoba: Shokuba-hen (Men’s Language: At the Workplace). Tokyo: Hitsuji-shobo.
Gramsci, A. (1971) Selections from the Prison Notebooks. London: Lawrence and Wishart.
Hirose, K. (1984) Onna no Kiryoo wa Kotoba Shidai (Women’s Charm Depends on their Language). Tokyo: Futami Shobo.
Holland, D. (1998) Figured worlds. In D. Holland, W. Lachicotte Jr., D. Skinner and C. Cain (eds) Identity and Agency in Cultural Worlds 49–65. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Ide, S. (1979) Onna no Kotoba, Otoko no Kotoba (Women’s Speech, Men’s Speech). Tokyo: Nihon Keizai Tsushinhsa.
Ide, S. (1982) Japanese sociolinguistics: Politeness and women’s language. Lingua 57: 357–385.
Ide, S. (1990) How and why do women speak more politely in Japanese? In S. Ide and N. H. McGloin (eds) Aspects of Japanese Women’s Language 63–79. Tokyo: Kuroshio.
Ide, S. and Yoshida, M. (1999) Sociolinguistics: Honorifics and gender differences. In N. Tsujimura (ed.) The Handbook of Japanese Linguistics 444–478. Oxford: Blackwell.
Inoue, M. (2004) Gender, language, and modernity: Toward an effective history of ‘Japanese women’s language’. In S. Okamoto and J. S. Shibamoto Smith (eds) Japanese Language, Gender, and Ideology: Cultural Models and Real People 57–75. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.
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Jugaku, A. (1979) Nihongo to Onna (The Japanese Language and Women). Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten.
Kanai, Y. (1994) Onna no Miryoku wa Hanashikata Shidai Part II (Women’s Attractiveness Depends on How They Speak, Part II). Tokyo: Daiwa Shuppan.
Kiesling, S. F. (2003) Prestige, cultural models, and other ways of talking about underlying gender norms. In J. Holmes and M. Meyerhoff (eds) The Handbook of Language and Gender 509–527. Oxford/Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Kindaichi, H. (1957) Nihongo (Japanese). Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten.
Kinsui, S. (2003) Vaacharu Nihongo: Yakuwarigo no Nazo (Virtual Japanese: Enigma of Role-linked Lexicon). Tokyo: Iwanami shoten.
Kokugogaku jiten (Dictionary of National Language Studies). (1969) Tokyo: Tokyo-do Shuppan.
Lebra, T. S. (1984) Japanese Women: Constraint and Fulfilment. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Maynard, S. (1990) An Introduction to Japanese Grammar and Communication Strategies. Tokyo: The Japan Times.
Miller, L. (1998) Bad girls: Representations of unsuitable, unfit, and unsatisfactory women in magazines. U.S.-Japan Women’s Journal 15: 31–51.
Miller, L. (2004) You are doing burikko! Censoring/scrutinizing artificers of cute femininity in Japanese. In S. Okamoto and J. S. Shibamoto Smith (eds) Japanese Language, Gender, and Ideology: Cultural Models and Real People 148–165. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.
Miller, R. A. (1967) The Japanese Language. Chicago/London: The University of Chicago Press.
Mills, S. (2003) Gender and Politeness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Milroy, J. (2001) Language ideologies and the consequences of standardization. Journal of Sociolinguistics 5/4: 530–555.
Miyake, Y. (1995) A dialect in the face of the standard: A Japanese case study. Berkeley Linguistics Society 21: 217–225.
Mizumoto, T. (2006) Terebi dorama to jisshakai ni okeru josee bunmatsushi shiyoo no zure ni miru jendaa firutaa (The gender filter as seen in discrepancies in women’s use of sentence-final forms in television dramas vs. real society). In Nihongo Jendaa Gakkai (ed.) Nihongo to Jendaa (Japanese and Gender) 73–94. Tokyo: Hitsuji Shobo.
Mizutani, O. and Mizutani, N. (1987) How to be Polite in Japanese. Tokyo: The Japan Times.
Nakamura, M. (2002) Discursive construction of the ideology of women’s language: The Heian period (794–1192). Nature-People-Society: Science and the Humanities 33: 13–24. Tokyo: Kanto Gakuin University.
Nakamura, M. (2003a) Discursive construction of the ideology of ‘women’s language’: From Kamakura, Muromachi to Edo periods (1180–1867). Nature-People-Society: Science and the Humanities 34: 21–64. Tokyo: Kanto Gakuin University.
Nakamura, M. (2003b) Discursive construction of the ideology of ‘women’s language’: Women’s disciplinary books/moral textbooks and the unification of written and spoken languages in the Meiji/Taisho periods (1868–1926). Nature-People-Society: Science and the Humanities 35: 1–39. Tokyo: Kanto Gakuin University.
Ochs, E. (1992) Indexing gender. In A. Duranti and C. Goodwin (eds) Rethinking Context: Language as an Interactive Phenomenon 335–358. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Okada, M. (2006) Speaker’s sex or discourse activities? A micro-discourse-based account of usage of non-particle questions in Japanese. Language in Society 35: 341–365.
Okamoto, S. (2004) Ideology in linguistic practice and analysis: Gender and politeness in Japanese revisited. In S. Okamoto and J. S. Shibamoto Smith (eds) Japanese Language, Gender, and Ideology: Cultural Models and Real People 38–56. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.
Okamoto, S. and Shibamoto Smith, J. S. (2004a) Japanese Language, Gender and Ideology: Cultural Models and Real People. New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Okamoto, S. and Shibamoto Smith, J. S. (2004b) Standard Japanese in the construction of gendered speech norms. Paper presented at the American Association for Applied Linguistics Annual Conference, Portland OR.
Satake, K. (2003) Terebi anime no rufusuru ‘onna kotoba/otoko kotoba’ kihan (Norms for ‘women’s speech’ and ‘men’s speech’ promulgated through television anime). Kotoba (Language) 24: 43–59.
Shibamoto, J. S. (1985) Japanese Women’s Language. New York: Academic Press.
Shibamoto, J. S. (1987) The womanly woman: Manipulation of stereotypical and nonstereotypical features of Japanese female speech. In S. U. Philips, S. Steele and C. Tanz (eds) Comparative Perspectives on Gender, Sex and Language 26–49. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Shibamoto Smith, J. S. (2003) Gendered structures in Japanese. In Marlis Hellinger and Hadumod Bussmann (eds) Gender Across Languages, Volume 3: 201–225. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Shibamoto Smith, J. S. (2004) Language and gender in the (hetero) romance: ‘Reading’ the ideal hero/ine through lover’s dialogue in Japanese romance fiction. In S. Okamoto and J. S. Shibamoto Smith (eds) Japanese Language, Gender, and Ideology: Cultural Models and Real People 113–130. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.
Shibatani, M. (1990) The Languages of Japan. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Shimodaira, K. (2004) Josee no Utsukushii Hanashikata to Kaiwajutsu (Women’s Beautiful Ways of Speaking and Conversational Techniques). Tokyo: Seibido Shuppan.
Siegal, M. and Okamoto, S. (2003) Toward reconceptualizing the teaching and learning of gendered speech styles in Japanese as a foreign language. Japanese Language and Literature 37(1): 49–66.
Silverstein, M. (1996) Indexical order and the dialectics of sociolinguistic life. In R. Ide, R. Parker and Y. Sunaoshi (eds) SALSA III: Proceedings of the Third Annual Symposium about Language and Society – Austin 266–295. Austin TX: University of Texas Department of Linguistics.
Sturtz Sreetharan, C. (2004a) Students, sarariiman (pl.) and seniors: Japanese men’s use of ‘manly’ speech register. Language in Society 33: 81–107.
Sturtz Sreetharan, C. (2004b) Japanese men’s linguistic stereotypes and realities: Conversations from the Kansai and Kanto regions. In S. Okamoto and J. S. Shibamoto Smith (eds) Japanese Language, Gender, and Ideology: Cultural Models and Real People 275–289. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.
Sugimoto, T. (1997) Onna Kotoba Ima Mukashi (Women’s Speech, Now and Then). Tokyo: Yukaku Shuppan.
Sunaoshi, Y. (2004) Farm women’s professional discourse in Ibaraki. In S. Okamoto and J. S. Shibamoto Smith (eds) Japanese Language, Gender, and Ideology: Cultural Models and Real People 187–204. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.
Tsujimura, N. (1996) An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. Oxford: Blackwell.
Tsujimura, N. (2006) An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics (2nd edition). Oxford: Blackwell.
Urano, K. (2004) ‘Hanashi-joozu’ na onna ni umarekawaru hon: Jooshi, dansee ni hanashi o sunnari tsutaeru kotsu (A Book to [help you] be Reborn as a ‘Well-spoken’ Woman: Tricks to Communicating Smoothly with Bosses and Men). Tokyo: Chukei Shuppan.
Washi, R. (2002) ‘Onnakotoba’ to lenryoku: Shojo zasshi no kotoba kara mieru mono (‘Women’s speech’ and power: What can be learned from the language of girls’ magazines). Joseegaku (Women’s Studies) 9: 1–19.
Washi, R. (2004) ‘Japanese female speech’ and language policy in the World War II era. In S. Okamoto and J. S. Shibamoto Smith (eds) Japanese Language, Gender, and Ideology: Cultural Models and Real People 76–91. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.
Bourdieu, P. (1982/1991) Language and Symbolic Power (edited and with an introduction by J. B. Thompson). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Brown, P. and Levinson, S. C. (1987) Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bucholtz, M. (2003) Sociolinguistic nostalgia and the authentication of identity. Journal of Sociolinguistics 7(3): 398–416.
Dunn, C. D. (1996) Style and Genre in Japanese Women’s Discourse. Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Texas at Austin.
Eckert, P. and McConnell-Ginet, S. (2003) Language and Gender. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Eelen, G. (2001) A Critique of Politeness Theories. Manchester: St. Jerome.
Endo, O. (1997) Onna no Kotoba no Bunkashi (Cultural History of Japanese Women’s Language). Tokyo: Gakuyo Shobo.
Endo, O. (2002) Joseego to yuu shisoo (The ideology of ‘women’s language’). Kotoba (Word) 23: 40–58.
Endo, O. (2006) A Cultural History of Japanese Women’s Language. Ann Arbor: Center for Japanese Studies, The University of Michigan Press.
Enomoto, K. (1995) Josee no Miryoku, Konna Ii Hanashi (Women’s Attractiveness, Such Nice Stories). Tokyo: Mikasa Shobo.
Foucault, M. (1978/1990) The History of Sexuality: Volume 1: An Introduction. (Translated by R. Hurley.) New York: Vintage Books.
Gendai Nihongo Kenkyukai (ed.) (1999) Josee no Kotoba: Shokuba-hen (Women’s Language: At the Workplace). Tokyo: Hitsuji-shobo.
Gendai Nihongo Kenkyukai (ed.) (2002) Dansee no Kotoba: Shokuba-hen (Men’s Language: At the Workplace). Tokyo: Hitsuji-shobo.
Gramsci, A. (1971) Selections from the Prison Notebooks. London: Lawrence and Wishart.
Hirose, K. (1984) Onna no Kiryoo wa Kotoba Shidai (Women’s Charm Depends on their Language). Tokyo: Futami Shobo.
Holland, D. (1998) Figured worlds. In D. Holland, W. Lachicotte Jr., D. Skinner and C. Cain (eds) Identity and Agency in Cultural Worlds 49–65. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Ide, S. (1979) Onna no Kotoba, Otoko no Kotoba (Women’s Speech, Men’s Speech). Tokyo: Nihon Keizai Tsushinhsa.
Ide, S. (1982) Japanese sociolinguistics: Politeness and women’s language. Lingua 57: 357–385.
Ide, S. (1990) How and why do women speak more politely in Japanese? In S. Ide and N. H. McGloin (eds) Aspects of Japanese Women’s Language 63–79. Tokyo: Kuroshio.
Ide, S. and Yoshida, M. (1999) Sociolinguistics: Honorifics and gender differences. In N. Tsujimura (ed.) The Handbook of Japanese Linguistics 444–478. Oxford: Blackwell.
Inoue, M. (2004) Gender, language, and modernity: Toward an effective history of ‘Japanese women’s language’. In S. Okamoto and J. S. Shibamoto Smith (eds) Japanese Language, Gender, and Ideology: Cultural Models and Real People 57–75. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.
Inoue, M. (2006) Vicarious Language: Gender and Linguistic Modernity in Japan. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Jugaku, A. (1977) Hyoojungo no Mondai (Issues of [the] Standard Language). In H. Ishino (ed.) Iwanami Kooza Nihongo 3: Kokugo Kokuji Mondai (Iwanami Series: The Japanese Language, vol. 3: Issues in National Language and Script) 167–198. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten.
Jugaku, A. (1979) Nihongo to Onna (The Japanese Language and Women). Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten.
Kanai, Y. (1994) Onna no Miryoku wa Hanashikata Shidai Part II (Women’s Attractiveness Depends on How They Speak, Part II). Tokyo: Daiwa Shuppan.
Kiesling, S. F. (2003) Prestige, cultural models, and other ways of talking about underlying gender norms. In J. Holmes and M. Meyerhoff (eds) The Handbook of Language and Gender 509–527. Oxford/Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Kindaichi, H. (1957) Nihongo (Japanese). Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten.
Kinsui, S. (2003) Vaacharu Nihongo: Yakuwarigo no Nazo (Virtual Japanese: Enigma of Role-linked Lexicon). Tokyo: Iwanami shoten.
Kokugogaku jiten (Dictionary of National Language Studies). (1969) Tokyo: Tokyo-do Shuppan.
Lebra, T. S. (1984) Japanese Women: Constraint and Fulfilment. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Maynard, S. (1990) An Introduction to Japanese Grammar and Communication Strategies. Tokyo: The Japan Times.
Miller, L. (1998) Bad girls: Representations of unsuitable, unfit, and unsatisfactory women in magazines. U.S.-Japan Women’s Journal 15: 31–51.
Miller, L. (2004) You are doing burikko! Censoring/scrutinizing artificers of cute femininity in Japanese. In S. Okamoto and J. S. Shibamoto Smith (eds) Japanese Language, Gender, and Ideology: Cultural Models and Real People 148–165. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.
Miller, R. A. (1967) The Japanese Language. Chicago/London: The University of Chicago Press.
Mills, S. (2003) Gender and Politeness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Milroy, J. (2001) Language ideologies and the consequences of standardization. Journal of Sociolinguistics 5/4: 530–555.
Miyake, Y. (1995) A dialect in the face of the standard: A Japanese case study. Berkeley Linguistics Society 21: 217–225.
Mizumoto, T. (2006) Terebi dorama to jisshakai ni okeru josee bunmatsushi shiyoo no zure ni miru jendaa firutaa (The gender filter as seen in discrepancies in women’s use of sentence-final forms in television dramas vs. real society). In Nihongo Jendaa Gakkai (ed.) Nihongo to Jendaa (Japanese and Gender) 73–94. Tokyo: Hitsuji Shobo.
Mizutani, O. and Mizutani, N. (1987) How to be Polite in Japanese. Tokyo: The Japan Times.
Nakamura, M. (2002) Discursive construction of the ideology of women’s language: The Heian period (794–1192). Nature-People-Society: Science and the Humanities 33: 13–24. Tokyo: Kanto Gakuin University.
Nakamura, M. (2003a) Discursive construction of the ideology of ‘women’s language’: From Kamakura, Muromachi to Edo periods (1180–1867). Nature-People-Society: Science and the Humanities 34: 21–64. Tokyo: Kanto Gakuin University.
Nakamura, M. (2003b) Discursive construction of the ideology of ‘women’s language’: Women’s disciplinary books/moral textbooks and the unification of written and spoken languages in the Meiji/Taisho periods (1868–1926). Nature-People-Society: Science and the Humanities 35: 1–39. Tokyo: Kanto Gakuin University.
Ochs, E. (1992) Indexing gender. In A. Duranti and C. Goodwin (eds) Rethinking Context: Language as an Interactive Phenomenon 335–358. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Okada, M. (2006) Speaker’s sex or discourse activities? A micro-discourse-based account of usage of non-particle questions in Japanese. Language in Society 35: 341–365.
Okamoto, S. (2004) Ideology in linguistic practice and analysis: Gender and politeness in Japanese revisited. In S. Okamoto and J. S. Shibamoto Smith (eds) Japanese Language, Gender, and Ideology: Cultural Models and Real People 38–56. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.
Okamoto, S. and Shibamoto Smith, J. S. (2004a) Japanese Language, Gender and Ideology: Cultural Models and Real People. New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Okamoto, S. and Shibamoto Smith, J. S. (2004b) Standard Japanese in the construction of gendered speech norms. Paper presented at the American Association for Applied Linguistics Annual Conference, Portland OR.
Satake, K. (2003) Terebi anime no rufusuru ‘onna kotoba/otoko kotoba’ kihan (Norms for ‘women’s speech’ and ‘men’s speech’ promulgated through television anime). Kotoba (Language) 24: 43–59.
Shibamoto, J. S. (1985) Japanese Women’s Language. New York: Academic Press.
Shibamoto, J. S. (1987) The womanly woman: Manipulation of stereotypical and nonstereotypical features of Japanese female speech. In S. U. Philips, S. Steele and C. Tanz (eds) Comparative Perspectives on Gender, Sex and Language 26–49. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Shibamoto Smith, J. S. (2003) Gendered structures in Japanese. In Marlis Hellinger and Hadumod Bussmann (eds) Gender Across Languages, Volume 3: 201–225. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Shibamoto Smith, J. S. (2004) Language and gender in the (hetero) romance: ‘Reading’ the ideal hero/ine through lover’s dialogue in Japanese romance fiction. In S. Okamoto and J. S. Shibamoto Smith (eds) Japanese Language, Gender, and Ideology: Cultural Models and Real People 113–130. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.
Shibatani, M. (1990) The Languages of Japan. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Shimodaira, K. (2004) Josee no Utsukushii Hanashikata to Kaiwajutsu (Women’s Beautiful Ways of Speaking and Conversational Techniques). Tokyo: Seibido Shuppan.
Siegal, M. and Okamoto, S. (2003) Toward reconceptualizing the teaching and learning of gendered speech styles in Japanese as a foreign language. Japanese Language and Literature 37(1): 49–66.
Silverstein, M. (1996) Indexical order and the dialectics of sociolinguistic life. In R. Ide, R. Parker and Y. Sunaoshi (eds) SALSA III: Proceedings of the Third Annual Symposium about Language and Society – Austin 266–295. Austin TX: University of Texas Department of Linguistics.
Sturtz Sreetharan, C. (2004a) Students, sarariiman (pl.) and seniors: Japanese men’s use of ‘manly’ speech register. Language in Society 33: 81–107.
Sturtz Sreetharan, C. (2004b) Japanese men’s linguistic stereotypes and realities: Conversations from the Kansai and Kanto regions. In S. Okamoto and J. S. Shibamoto Smith (eds) Japanese Language, Gender, and Ideology: Cultural Models and Real People 275–289. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.
Sugimoto, T. (1997) Onna Kotoba Ima Mukashi (Women’s Speech, Now and Then). Tokyo: Yukaku Shuppan.
Sunaoshi, Y. (2004) Farm women’s professional discourse in Ibaraki. In S. Okamoto and J. S. Shibamoto Smith (eds) Japanese Language, Gender, and Ideology: Cultural Models and Real People 187–204. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.
Tsujimura, N. (1996) An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. Oxford: Blackwell.
Tsujimura, N. (2006) An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics (2nd edition). Oxford: Blackwell.
Urano, K. (2004) ‘Hanashi-joozu’ na onna ni umarekawaru hon: Jooshi, dansee ni hanashi o sunnari tsutaeru kotsu (A Book to [help you] be Reborn as a ‘Well-spoken’ Woman: Tricks to Communicating Smoothly with Bosses and Men). Tokyo: Chukei Shuppan.
Washi, R. (2002) ‘Onnakotoba’ to lenryoku: Shojo zasshi no kotoba kara mieru mono (‘Women’s speech’ and power: What can be learned from the language of girls’ magazines). Joseegaku (Women’s Studies) 9: 1–19.
Washi, R. (2004) ‘Japanese female speech’ and language policy in the World War II era. In S. Okamoto and J. S. Shibamoto Smith (eds) Japanese Language, Gender, and Ideology: Cultural Models and Real People 76–91. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.
Published
2008-06-27
Issue
Section
Articles
How to Cite
Okamoto, S., & Shibamoto Smith, J. S. (2008). Constructing Linguistic Femininity in Contemporary Japan: Scholarly and Popular Representations. Gender and Language, 2(1), 87-112. https://doi.org/10.1558/genl.v2i1.87
