Influential or influenced?
The relationship between genre, gender and language in manga
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1558/genl.v9i2.17331Keywords:
Corpus Linguistics, Japanese, Manga, Personal Pronouns, Sentence-Final Particles, Yawakuri-GoAbstract
his paper examines gendered speech in a corpus of 10 popular manga (Japanese comics) series, with attention to realism and genre based differences. While traditionally described as a highly gendered language, Japanese recently has appeared to be becoming less so. Manga are often given as one influential factor for these changes, particularly regarding girls’ use of masculine first-person pronouns; however, previous research has been contradictory, and the importance of gendered-genres leads one to anticipate differences in characters’ speech. In response, I looked at two markers of Japanese gendered speech – personal pronouns and sentence-final particles – finding that while personal pronoun usage was generally normative, all genders used a variety of gendered sentence-final particles. While genre-based variations such as more stereotypical speech in manga for boys may reflect narrative differences, I suggest that the data show that manga reflect previously established changes, as with sentence-final particles, thus appearing consistent with reports that mass-media are not a clear source of linguistic change. However, their perception as low texts may be influential in their association with negative changes, even when such claims are not supported empirically, as with personal pronouns. In this way, popular media’s role in changing gendered language is shown to be more complex than commonly assumed.
References
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Chambers, J. K. (1998) TV makes people sound the same. In Laurie Bauer and Peter Trudgill (eds) Language Myths 123-131. London: Penguin Books.
Chen, Y. and Matsumura, Y. (2012) Nihongo no in’y?ku ni okeru jend? hy?gen: daigakusei no shizen danwa o ch?shin ni. Gengo Bunka Ronky? 28: 23–36.
Chinami, K. (2001) Manga ni miru jend? hy?gen no kin?. Nihongo to jend? 3(2). Retrieved on 26 May 2015 from www.gender.jp/journal/no3/No3_2.html.
End?, O. (2001) Onna no ko no 'boku/ore' wa okashikunai. In O. End? (ed.) Onna to Kotoba: Onna wa Kawatta ka, Nihongo wa Kawatta ka 30–39. Tokyo: Meiji-shoten.
Hishikari, C. (2007) A survey of the use of first-person pronouns by young people in the Tokyo metropolitan area. Tokyo Woman's Christian University Studies in Language and Culture 16: 33–49.
Ingulsrud, J. and Allen, K. (2010) Reading Japan Cool: Patterns of Manga Literacy and Discourse. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.
Inoue, M. (2006) Vicarious Language: Gender and Linguistic Modernity in Japan. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Ito, K. (2000) The manga culture in Japan. Japan Studies Review 4: 1–16.
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Keen, S. (2006) A theory of narrative empathy. Narrative 14(3): 207–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/nar.2006.0015
Kindaichi, H. (1989) The Japanese Language (trans. U. Hirano). Tokyo: Tuttle.
Kinsui, S. (2003) V?chuaru Nihongo: Yakuwari-go no Nazo. Tokyo: Iwanami-shoten.
Kinsui, S. (2007) Kindai nihon manga no gengo. In S. Kinsui (ed.) Yakuwari-go Kenky? no Chihei 97–108. Tokyo: Kurosio Publishers.
Kobayashi, M. (1993) Sedai to joseigo: wakai sedai no kotoba no ‘ch?seika’ ni tsuite. Nihongo-gaku 12(5): 181–92.
Kumano, N. and Hirokaga, M. (2008) Anime/manga ch?sa kenky?: chi’iki jij? to nihongo-ky?zai. Kokusai K?ry? Kikin Nihongo Ky?iku Kiy? 4: 55–69.
Kurosaki, S. (2011) Yakuwari-go kara kangaeru jish?shi ‘washi’ no h?gensei to shutsugen jiki. Seigakuin-daigaku Rons? 23(2): 1–14.
Labov, W. (2001) Principles of Linguistic Change: Social Factors. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Liu, J. (2004) Effects of comic strips on L2 learners’ reading comprehension. TESOL Quarterly 28: 225–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3588379
McGloin, N. H. (2005) Sex difference and sentence final particles. In N. Tsujimura (ed.) Japanese Linguistics, vol. 3, 222–38. Abingdon: Routledge.
Miller, L. (2004) You are doing burikko! In S. Okamoto and J. Shibamoto Smith (eds) Japanese Language, Gender, and Ideology: Cultural Models and Real People 148–65. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Misamisa091v (2009) Onna no ko na no ni ichininsh? ga ‘ore’ ya ‘boku’ nado ni tsuite. Yahoo Chieburo (10 February). Retrieved on 30 November 2012 from http://detail.chiebukuro.yahoo.co.jp/qa/question_detail/q1123032426.
Miyazaki, A. (2004) Japanese junior high school girls’ and boys’ first-person pronoun use and their social world. In S. Okamoto and J. S. Shibamoto-Smith (eds) Japanese Language, Gender, and Ideology: Cultural Models and Real People 256–73. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Murakami, S. and Bryce, M. (2009) Manga as an educational medium. International Journal of the Humanities 7(10): 47–55.
Nakazawa, J. (2005) Development of manga (comic book) literacy in children. In D. W. Shwalb, J. Nakazawa and B. J. Schwalb (eds) Applied Developmental Psychology: Theory, Practice, and Research from Japan 23–42. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.
Nakamura, M. (2007) ‘Sei’ to Nihongo: Kotoba ga Tsukuru Onna to Otoko. Tokyo: Nihon H?s? Shuppan Ky?kai.
Niedzielski, N. A. and Preston, D. R. (1999) Folk Linguistics. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Nihongo K?pasu (2004) UniDic no kaiseki seido. Retrieved on 30 November 2012 from www.tokuteicorpus.jp/dist/modules/system/modules/menu/main.php?page_id=3463&op=change_page.
Nishida, T. (2011) ‘Boku-sh?jo’ no gengo hy?gen: j?y?sei no aru ‘zokusei-hy?gen’ to yakuwari-go no setten. K?nan Joshi Daigaku Kenky? Kiy?: Bungaku/Bunka-hen 48: 13–22.
Nishinuma, Hayashi and Yabe 2006
Ogino, M. (2001) Manga wo shakaigaku suru. In K. Miyahara and M. Ogino (eds) Manga no Shakaigaku 134–56. Kyoto: Sekai Shis?sha.
Ohara, Y. (2004) Prosody and gender in workplace interaction: exploring constraints and resources in the use of Japanese. In S. Okamoto and J. S. Shibamoto Smith (eds) Japanese Language, Gender, and Ideology: Cultural Models and Real People 220–240. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Okamoto, S. (1995) ‘Tasteless’ Japanese: less ‘feminine’ speech among young Japanese women. In K. Hall and M. Bucholtz (ed.) Gender Articulated: Language and the Socially Constructed Self 297–325. London: Routledge.
Okamoto, S. (2005) Social context, linguistic ideology, and indexical expressions in Japanese. In N. Tsujimura (ed.) Japanese Linguistics, vol. 3, 98–124. London: Routledge.
Ozaki, Y. (1999) Josei sen'y? no bummatsu keishiki no ima. In G. Nihongo-Kenky?kai (ed.) Josei no Kotoba: Shokuba-hen 33–57. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo.
Peirce, K. (1997) Women’s magazine fiction: a content analysis of the roles, attributes, and occupations of main characters. Sex Roles 37(7–8): 581–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1025663103892
Philips, M. (2001) Are Japanese women less feminine now? A study of sentence-final forms in Japanese women’s conversation. In T. E. McAuley (ed.) Language Change in East Asia 47–69. Richmond: Curzon.
Schodt, F. L. (1996) Dreamland Japan: Writings on Modern Manga. Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge.
Shibamoto, J. (1987) The womanly woman: manipulation of stereotypical and nonstereotypical features of Japanese female speech. In S. U. Philips, S. Steele and C. Tanz (ed.) Language, Gender and Sex in Comparative Perspective 26–49. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511621918.003
Shibamoto, J. (2005) Women’s Speech in Japan. In N. Tsujimura (ed.) Japanese Linguistics, vol. 3, 181–222. London: Routledge.
Shinomoto, 634 (2008) Jibun no koto wo ‘boku’ ‘ore’ to yobu ‘bokukko’ ‘ore-onna’ no sesshikata manyuaru. R25 (22 October). Retrieved on 30 November 2012 from http://r25.yahoo.co.jp/fushigi/wxr_detail/?id=20080822-90004782-r25.
Signorielli, N. and Bacue, A. (1999) Recognition and respect: a content analysis of prime-time television characters across three decades. Sex Roles 40(7–8): 527–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1018883912900
Sturtz Sreetharan, C. (2004) Students, sarariiman (pl.), and seniors: Japanese men’s use of ‘manly’ speech register. Language in Society 33: 81–107. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0047404504031045
Suzuki, C. (2001) Onna no tsukau ‘otoko no kotoba’, otoko no tsukau ‘onna no kotoba’. In O. End? (ed.) Onna to Kotoba: Onna wa Kawatta ka, Nihongo wa Kawatta ka 91–99. Tokyo: Meiji-shoten.
Takahashi, S. (2009) Akujo no ‘yakuwari’: sh?jo-manga ‘Raifu’ ni miru sh?jo no ‘onna-kotoba’. Gender and Sexuality 4: 17–38.
Takeuchi, O. (2005) Manga Hy?gen Ny?mon. Tokyo: Chikumashobo.
Talbot, M. (1995) Synthetic sisterhood: false friends in a teenage magazine. In K. Hall and M. Bucholtz (eds) Gender Articulated: Language and the Socially Constructed Self 143–68. London: Routledge.
Tanaka, T. (2012) Media Bunka to Jend? no Seijigaku: Daisamba Feminizumu no Shiten kara. Kyoto: Seikaishisosha.
Taruruda (2007) Jibun no koto wo boku tte iu onna no ko tte, mawari ni imasu ka? Yahoo Chiebukuro (25 June). Retrieved on 30 November 2012 from http://detail.chiebukuro.yahoo.co.jp/qa/question_detail/q1411855674.
Tsujimura, N. (2007) An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
Ueno, J. (2006) Shojo and adult women: a linguistic analysis of gender identity in manga (Japanese comics). Women and Language 29(1): 16–25.
Unser-Schutz, G. (2010) Girls, boys and manga: sentence final particles in Japanese comics for girls and boys. Paper presented at the International Gender and Language Association conference, Tokyo, 18–20 September.
Unser-Schutz, G. (2011) Developing a text-based corpus of the language of Japanese comics (manga). In S. Rice, H. Baayen and J. Newman (eds) Corpus-Based Studies in Language Documentation, Use, and Learning Corpus-based Studies in Language Documents 213–38. Amsterdam: Rodopi.
Unser-Schutz, G. (2015) What text can tell us about male and female characters in sh?jo- and sh?nen-manga. East Asian Journal of Popular Culture 1(1): 133–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1386/eapc.1.1.133_1
Weitzman, L. J., Eifler, D., Hokada, E. and Ross, C. (1972) Sex-role socialization in picture books for preschool children. American Journal of Sociology 77(7): 1125–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/225261
Yamane, K. (1986) Hentai Sh?jo Moji no Kenky?: Moji no Muk? ni Sh?jo ga Mieru. Tokyo: Kodansha.
Aitchison, J. (1997) The Language Web: The Power and Problem of Words. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Aitchison, J. (1998) The media are ruining English. In L. Bauer and P. Trudgill (eds) Language Myths 15–22. London: Penguin.
Aitchison, J. (2007) The Word Weavers: Newshounds and Wordsmiths. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Aizawa, M. (2003) Sh?jo manga ni miru onna kotoba. Meikai Nihongo 8: 85–99.
Anonymous (2006) Josei wa daitei ‘watashi’ na no ni, dansei ga ‘boku’ ‘ore’ ‘watashi’ nado to tsukai wake suru no wa naze? Yahoo Chiebukuro (26 September). Retrieved on 30 November 2012 from http://detail.chiebukuro.yahoo.co.jp/qa/question_detail/q116137481.
Battistella, E. I. (2005) Bad Language: Are Some Words Better than Others? Oxford: Oxford University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195172485.001.0001
Chambers, J. K. (1993) Sociolinguistic dialectology. In D. R. Preston (eds) American Dialect Research 133–66. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/z.68.07cha
Chambers, J. K. (1998) TV makes people sound the same. In Laurie Bauer and Peter Trudgill (eds) Language Myths 123-131. London: Penguin Books.
Chen, Y. and Matsumura, Y. (2012) Nihongo no in’y?ku ni okeru jend? hy?gen: daigakusei no shizen danwa o ch?shin ni. Gengo Bunka Ronky? 28: 23–36.
Chinami, K. (2001) Manga ni miru jend? hy?gen no kin?. Nihongo to jend? 3(2). Retrieved on 26 May 2015 from www.gender.jp/journal/no3/No3_2.html.
End?, O. (2001) Onna no ko no 'boku/ore' wa okashikunai. In O. End? (ed.) Onna to Kotoba: Onna wa Kawatta ka, Nihongo wa Kawatta ka 30–39. Tokyo: Meiji-shoten.
Hishikari, C. (2007) A survey of the use of first-person pronouns by young people in the Tokyo metropolitan area. Tokyo Woman's Christian University Studies in Language and Culture 16: 33–49.
Ingulsrud, J. and Allen, K. (2010) Reading Japan Cool: Patterns of Manga Literacy and Discourse. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.
Inoue, M. (2006) Vicarious Language: Gender and Linguistic Modernity in Japan. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Ito, K. (2000) The manga culture in Japan. Japan Studies Review 4: 1–16.
Japanese Agency for Cultural Affairs (2008) Heisei 19 nendo ‘Kokugo ni kansuru yoron ch?sa’ no kekka nitsuite. Retrieved on 30 November 2012 from www.bunka.go.jp/kokugo_nihongo/yoronchousa/h19/kekka.html.
Jung, H. (2005) Nihongo to kankokugo no yakuwari-go no taish?: Taiyaku-sakuhin kara miru hon'yaku-j? no mondai o ch?shin ni. Shakai Gengo-kagaku 8(1): 82–92.
Kawasaki, K. and McDougall, K. (2003) Implications of representations of casual conversation: a case study in gender-associated sentence final particles. Sekai no Nihongo-ky?iku Nihongo-ky?iku Ronshuu 13: 41–55.
Keen, S. (2006) A theory of narrative empathy. Narrative 14(3): 207–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/nar.2006.0015
Kindaichi, H. (1989) The Japanese Language (trans. U. Hirano). Tokyo: Tuttle.
Kinsui, S. (2003) V?chuaru Nihongo: Yakuwari-go no Nazo. Tokyo: Iwanami-shoten.
Kinsui, S. (2007) Kindai nihon manga no gengo. In S. Kinsui (ed.) Yakuwari-go Kenky? no Chihei 97–108. Tokyo: Kurosio Publishers.
Kobayashi, M. (1993) Sedai to joseigo: wakai sedai no kotoba no ‘ch?seika’ ni tsuite. Nihongo-gaku 12(5): 181–92.
Kumano, N. and Hirokaga, M. (2008) Anime/manga ch?sa kenky?: chi’iki jij? to nihongo-ky?zai. Kokusai K?ry? Kikin Nihongo Ky?iku Kiy? 4: 55–69.
Kurosaki, S. (2011) Yakuwari-go kara kangaeru jish?shi ‘washi’ no h?gensei to shutsugen jiki. Seigakuin-daigaku Rons? 23(2): 1–14.
Labov, W. (2001) Principles of Linguistic Change: Social Factors. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Liu, J. (2004) Effects of comic strips on L2 learners’ reading comprehension. TESOL Quarterly 28: 225–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3588379
McGloin, N. H. (2005) Sex difference and sentence final particles. In N. Tsujimura (ed.) Japanese Linguistics, vol. 3, 222–38. Abingdon: Routledge.
Miller, L. (2004) You are doing burikko! In S. Okamoto and J. Shibamoto Smith (eds) Japanese Language, Gender, and Ideology: Cultural Models and Real People 148–65. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Misamisa091v (2009) Onna no ko na no ni ichininsh? ga ‘ore’ ya ‘boku’ nado ni tsuite. Yahoo Chieburo (10 February). Retrieved on 30 November 2012 from http://detail.chiebukuro.yahoo.co.jp/qa/question_detail/q1123032426.
Miyazaki, A. (2004) Japanese junior high school girls’ and boys’ first-person pronoun use and their social world. In S. Okamoto and J. S. Shibamoto-Smith (eds) Japanese Language, Gender, and Ideology: Cultural Models and Real People 256–73. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Murakami, S. and Bryce, M. (2009) Manga as an educational medium. International Journal of the Humanities 7(10): 47–55.
Nakazawa, J. (2005) Development of manga (comic book) literacy in children. In D. W. Shwalb, J. Nakazawa and B. J. Schwalb (eds) Applied Developmental Psychology: Theory, Practice, and Research from Japan 23–42. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.
Nakamura, M. (2007) ‘Sei’ to Nihongo: Kotoba ga Tsukuru Onna to Otoko. Tokyo: Nihon H?s? Shuppan Ky?kai.
Niedzielski, N. A. and Preston, D. R. (1999) Folk Linguistics. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Nihongo K?pasu (2004) UniDic no kaiseki seido. Retrieved on 30 November 2012 from www.tokuteicorpus.jp/dist/modules/system/modules/menu/main.php?page_id=3463&op=change_page.
Nishida, T. (2011) ‘Boku-sh?jo’ no gengo hy?gen: j?y?sei no aru ‘zokusei-hy?gen’ to yakuwari-go no setten. K?nan Joshi Daigaku Kenky? Kiy?: Bungaku/Bunka-hen 48: 13–22.
Nishinuma, Hayashi and Yabe 2006
Ogino, M. (2001) Manga wo shakaigaku suru. In K. Miyahara and M. Ogino (eds) Manga no Shakaigaku 134–56. Kyoto: Sekai Shis?sha.
Ohara, Y. (2004) Prosody and gender in workplace interaction: exploring constraints and resources in the use of Japanese. In S. Okamoto and J. S. Shibamoto Smith (eds) Japanese Language, Gender, and Ideology: Cultural Models and Real People 220–240. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Okamoto, S. (1995) ‘Tasteless’ Japanese: less ‘feminine’ speech among young Japanese women. In K. Hall and M. Bucholtz (ed.) Gender Articulated: Language and the Socially Constructed Self 297–325. London: Routledge.
Okamoto, S. (2005) Social context, linguistic ideology, and indexical expressions in Japanese. In N. Tsujimura (ed.) Japanese Linguistics, vol. 3, 98–124. London: Routledge.
Ozaki, Y. (1999) Josei sen'y? no bummatsu keishiki no ima. In G. Nihongo-Kenky?kai (ed.) Josei no Kotoba: Shokuba-hen 33–57. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo.
Peirce, K. (1997) Women’s magazine fiction: a content analysis of the roles, attributes, and occupations of main characters. Sex Roles 37(7–8): 581–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1025663103892
Philips, M. (2001) Are Japanese women less feminine now? A study of sentence-final forms in Japanese women’s conversation. In T. E. McAuley (ed.) Language Change in East Asia 47–69. Richmond: Curzon.
Schodt, F. L. (1996) Dreamland Japan: Writings on Modern Manga. Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge.
Shibamoto, J. (1987) The womanly woman: manipulation of stereotypical and nonstereotypical features of Japanese female speech. In S. U. Philips, S. Steele and C. Tanz (ed.) Language, Gender and Sex in Comparative Perspective 26–49. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511621918.003
Shibamoto, J. (2005) Women’s Speech in Japan. In N. Tsujimura (ed.) Japanese Linguistics, vol. 3, 181–222. London: Routledge.
Shinomoto, 634 (2008) Jibun no koto wo ‘boku’ ‘ore’ to yobu ‘bokukko’ ‘ore-onna’ no sesshikata manyuaru. R25 (22 October). Retrieved on 30 November 2012 from http://r25.yahoo.co.jp/fushigi/wxr_detail/?id=20080822-90004782-r25.
Signorielli, N. and Bacue, A. (1999) Recognition and respect: a content analysis of prime-time television characters across three decades. Sex Roles 40(7–8): 527–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1018883912900
Sturtz Sreetharan, C. (2004) Students, sarariiman (pl.), and seniors: Japanese men’s use of ‘manly’ speech register. Language in Society 33: 81–107. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0047404504031045
Suzuki, C. (2001) Onna no tsukau ‘otoko no kotoba’, otoko no tsukau ‘onna no kotoba’. In O. End? (ed.) Onna to Kotoba: Onna wa Kawatta ka, Nihongo wa Kawatta ka 91–99. Tokyo: Meiji-shoten.
Takahashi, S. (2009) Akujo no ‘yakuwari’: sh?jo-manga ‘Raifu’ ni miru sh?jo no ‘onna-kotoba’. Gender and Sexuality 4: 17–38.
Takeuchi, O. (2005) Manga Hy?gen Ny?mon. Tokyo: Chikumashobo.
Talbot, M. (1995) Synthetic sisterhood: false friends in a teenage magazine. In K. Hall and M. Bucholtz (eds) Gender Articulated: Language and the Socially Constructed Self 143–68. London: Routledge.
Tanaka, T. (2012) Media Bunka to Jend? no Seijigaku: Daisamba Feminizumu no Shiten kara. Kyoto: Seikaishisosha.
Taruruda (2007) Jibun no koto wo boku tte iu onna no ko tte, mawari ni imasu ka? Yahoo Chiebukuro (25 June). Retrieved on 30 November 2012 from http://detail.chiebukuro.yahoo.co.jp/qa/question_detail/q1411855674.
Tsujimura, N. (2007) An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
Ueno, J. (2006) Shojo and adult women: a linguistic analysis of gender identity in manga (Japanese comics). Women and Language 29(1): 16–25.
Unser-Schutz, G. (2010) Girls, boys and manga: sentence final particles in Japanese comics for girls and boys. Paper presented at the International Gender and Language Association conference, Tokyo, 18–20 September.
Unser-Schutz, G. (2011) Developing a text-based corpus of the language of Japanese comics (manga). In S. Rice, H. Baayen and J. Newman (eds) Corpus-Based Studies in Language Documentation, Use, and Learning Corpus-based Studies in Language Documents 213–38. Amsterdam: Rodopi.
Unser-Schutz, G. (2015) What text can tell us about male and female characters in sh?jo- and sh?nen-manga. East Asian Journal of Popular Culture 1(1): 133–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1386/eapc.1.1.133_1
Weitzman, L. J., Eifler, D., Hokada, E. and Ross, C. (1972) Sex-role socialization in picture books for preschool children. American Journal of Sociology 77(7): 1125–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/225261
Yamane, K. (1986) Hentai Sh?jo Moji no Kenky?: Moji no Muk? ni Sh?jo ga Mieru. Tokyo: Kodansha.
Published
2015-08-05
Issue
Section
Articles
How to Cite
Unser-Schutz, G. (2015). Influential or influenced? The relationship between genre, gender and language in manga. Gender and Language, 9(2), 223–254. https://doi.org/10.1558/genl.v9i2.17331
