Sound, music and gender in mobile games
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1558/genl.v10i3.32039Keywords:
gender, apps, computer games, sound, music, multimodalityAbstract
In everyday life it is now common to find our actions linked to sound, especially using technology, such as when we use mobile devices, or operate more recently manufactured cars, technology in the workplace or simply in an elevator. While we may attend little to these noises, like any semiotic resource, they can communicate very specific meanings and carry ideologies. In this paper, using multimodal critical discourse analysis, we analyse the sounds and music in two proto-games that are played on mobile devices: Genie Palace Divine and Dragon Island Race. While visually the two games are highly gendered, we show that an investigation of the sounds players can make during gameplay reveals very specific insights into the ways that sound positions players in the world. In each game we ask: what is foregrounded and what backgrounded as regards sound? Sound can be used to signal the personal and impersonal and specific kinds of social relations which, we show, is highly gendered. It can also signal priorities, ideas and values, which in both cases, we show, relate to a world where there is simply no time to stop and think.
References
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Leonard, M. (2007) Gender in the Music Industry: Rock, Discourses and Girl Power. Aldershot: Ashgate.
Lieb, K. (2013) Gender, Branding and the Modern Music Industry. London: Routledge.
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Lomax, A. (1968) Folk Song Style and Culture. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.
Lucas, K. and Sherry, J. (2004) Sex differences in video game play: a communication-based explanation. Communication Research 91: 449–523. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0093650204267930
MacCallum-Stewart, E. (2014) ‘Take that, bitches!’ Refiguring Lara Croft in feminist game narratives. Game Studies 14(2). Retrieved on 17 October 2016 from http://gamestudies.org/1402/articles/maccallumstewart.
Machin, D. (2010) Analysing Popular Music: Image, Sound, Text. London: Sage. http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781446280027
Machin, D. and Richardson, J. E. (2012) Discourses of unity and purpose it the sounds of fascist music: a multimodal approach. Critical Discourse Studies 9: 329–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17405904.2012.713203
Manvell, R. and Huntley, J. (1957) The Technique of Film Music. London: Focal Press.
McClary, S. (1991) Feminine Endings: Music, Gender, and Sexuality. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
McKerrell, S. (2015) Social distance and the multimodal construction of the Other in sectarian song. Social Semiotics 25: 614–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10350330.2015.1046216
Miller, P. (2012) Salary survey. Game Developer Magazine: Annual Game Career Guide (Fall): 33–50.
Miller, M. K. and Summers, A. (2007) Gender differences in video game characters’ roles. Appearances and attire as portrayed in video game magazines. Sex Roles 57: 733–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11199-007-9307-0
Oliver, M. B., Weaver, J. B. and Sargent, S. L. (2000) An examination of factors related to sex difference enjoyment of sad film. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 44: 282–300. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15506878jobem4402_8
Robinson, T., Callister, M., Clark, B. and Phillips, J. (2008) Violence, sexuality and gender stereotyping: a content analysis of official game websites. Web Journal of Mass Communications Research 13: 1–17.
Scharrer, E. (2004) Virtual violence: gender and aggression in video game advertisements. Mass Communication and Society 7: 393–412. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15327825mcs0704_2
Simon, J.-P. (1979) Le Filmique et le Comique. Paris: Éditions Albatros.
Steen, F. F., Greenfield, M. S., Davies, M. S. and Tynes, B. (2006) What went wrong with the Sims online? Cultural learning and barriers to identification in a massively multiplayer online role-playing game. In P. Vorderer and J. Bryant (eds) Playing Video Games: Motives, Responses and Consequences 307–23. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Stockburger, A. (2003) The game environment from an auditive perspective. Retrieved on 17 October 2016 from www.stockburger.at/research/paper-presentation-the-game-environment-from-an-auditive-perspective.
Tagg, P. (1984) Understanding musical ‘time sense’: concepts, sketches and consequences. In Tvärspel: Festskrift för Jan Ling (50 år) 21–4. Gothenburg: Skrifter från Musikvetenskapliga Institutionen.
Tagg, P. and Clarida, B. (2009) Ten Little Tunes. New York: Mass Media Music Scholars Press.
Van Leeuwen, T. (1999) Speech, Music, Sound. London: Macmillan. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-27700-1
Van Leeuwen, T. (2012) The critical analysis of musical discourse. Critical Discourse Studies 9(4): 319–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17405904.2012.713204
Way, L. (2013) Discourses of popular politics, war and authenticity in Turkish pop music. Social Semiotics 23: 715–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10350330.2013.819723
Way, L. S. and McKerrell, S. (2017) Music as Multimodal Discourse: Semiotics, Power and Protest. London: Bloomsbury.
Williams, D., Consalvo, M., Caplan, S. and Yee, N. (2009) Looking for gender: gender roles and behaviors among online gamers. Journal of Communication 59: 700–725. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2009.01453.x
Agosto, D. (2004) Using gender schema theory to examine gender equality in computing: a preliminary study. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering 10: 37–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1615/JWomenMinorScienEng.v10.i1.30
Barlett, C. P., Harris, R. J. and Bruey, C. (2008) The effect of the amount of blood in a violent video game on aggression, hostility and arousal. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 44: 539–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2007.10.003
Barthes, R. (1977) Image, Music, Text, London: Fontana.
Bergstrom, K., Jenson, J. and de Castell, S. (2012) What’s ‘choice’ got to do with it? Avatar selection differences between novice and expert players or World of Warcraft and Rift. In Proceedings of the International Conference on the Foundations of Digital Games, Raleigh, NC, 29 May–1 June 2012 97–104. New York: ACM. Retrieved on 21 October 2016 from http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?doid=2282338.
Cassell, J. (2002) Genderizing HCI. In J. Jacko and A. Sears (eds) The Handbook of Human-Computer Interaction 402–11. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Chess, S. (2015) Uncanny gaming. Feminist Media Studies 15: 382–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2014.930062
Chion, M. (2009) Film: A Sound Art. New York: Columbia University Press.
Dickerman, C., Christensen, J. and Kerl-McClain, S. (2008) Big breasts and bad guys: depictions of gender and race in video games. Journal of Creativity in Mental Health 3: 20–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15401380801995076
Donnelly, K. (2005) The Spectre of Sound: Music in Film and Television. London: BFI.
Downs, E. and Smith, S. L. (2010) Keeping abreast of hypersexuality: a video game content analysis. Sex Roles 62: 721–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9637-1
ESA (2012) Essential Facts about the Computer and Video Game Industry. Washington, DC: Entertainment Software Association. Retrieved on 21 October 2016 from www.isfe.eu/sites/isfe.eu/files/attachments/esa_ef_2012.pdf.
Foucault, M. (1981) The History of Sexuality. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Freud, S. ([1902]1976) Jokes and their Relations to the Unconscious. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Friberg, J. and Gärdenfors, D. (2004) Audio games: new perspectives on game audio. In R. Nakatsu, M. Billinghurst and G. Yu (eds) Proceedings of the 2004 ACM SIGCHI International Conference on Advances in Computer Entertainment Technology 148–54. New York: ACM. http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/1067343.1067361
Goffman, E. (1976) Gender Advertisements. London: Macmillan. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-16079-2
Gorbman, C. (1987) Unheard Melodies: Narrative Film Music. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
Griffiths, F. and Machin, D. (2014) Communicating the ideas and attitudes of spying in film music: a social semiotic approach. Sign Systems Studies 42: 72–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.12697/sss.2014.42.1.04
Grimshaw, M. (2007) The acoustic ecology of the first-person shooter. PhD thesis, University of Waikato, New Zealand.
Grimshaw, M. (2011) Game Sound Technology and Player Interaction: Concepts and Developments. Hershey, PA: IGI Global. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/978-1-61692-828-5
Grimshaw, M. (2013) Playing with sound: the role of music and sound effects in gaming. In A Cohen, S. D. Lipscomb and R. A. Kendal (eds) Psychology of Music in Multimedia 289–314. Oxford: Oxford University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199608157.003.0013
Grimshaw, M. (2016) Computer game sound: from diegesis to immersion to sonic emotioneering. In J. G. Papenburg and H. Schulze (eds) Sound in Popular Culture: A Research Companion 325–33. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1978) Language as Social Semiotic: The Social Interpretation of Language and Meaning. Baltimore, MD: University Park Press.
Huntley, J. and Manvell, R. (eds) (1981) The Technique of Film Music. London: Focal Press.
Jansz, J. and Martis, R. G. (2007) The Lara phenomenon: powerful female characters in video games. Sex Roles 56: 141–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11199-006-9158-0
Kafai, Y. B., Heeter, C., Denner, J. and Sun, J. Y. (eds) (2008) Beyond Barbie and Mortal Kombat: New Perspectives on Gender and Gaming. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Kassabian, A. (2001) Hearing Film: Tracking Identification in Contemporary Hollywood Film Music. London: Routledge.
Lakoff, G. and Johnson, M. (1981) Metaphors We Live By. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Layne, A. and Blackmon, S. (2013) Self-saving princess: feminism and post-play narrative modding. ADA 2. Retrieved on 17 October 2016 from http://adanewmedia.org/2013/06/issue2-layne-blackmon.
Leonard, M. (2007) Gender in the Music Industry: Rock, Discourses and Girl Power. Aldershot: Ashgate.
Lieb, K. (2013) Gender, Branding and the Modern Music Industry. London: Routledge.
Linderoth, J. and Ohrn, E. (2014) Chivalry, subordination and courtship culture: being a ‘woman’ in online games. Journal of Gaming and Virtual Worlds 6: 33–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1386/jgvw.6.1.33_1
Lomax, A. (1968) Folk Song Style and Culture. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.
Lucas, K. and Sherry, J. (2004) Sex differences in video game play: a communication-based explanation. Communication Research 91: 449–523. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0093650204267930
MacCallum-Stewart, E. (2014) ‘Take that, bitches!’ Refiguring Lara Croft in feminist game narratives. Game Studies 14(2). Retrieved on 17 October 2016 from http://gamestudies.org/1402/articles/maccallumstewart.
Machin, D. (2010) Analysing Popular Music: Image, Sound, Text. London: Sage. http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781446280027
Machin, D. and Richardson, J. E. (2012) Discourses of unity and purpose it the sounds of fascist music: a multimodal approach. Critical Discourse Studies 9: 329–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17405904.2012.713203
Manvell, R. and Huntley, J. (1957) The Technique of Film Music. London: Focal Press.
McClary, S. (1991) Feminine Endings: Music, Gender, and Sexuality. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
McKerrell, S. (2015) Social distance and the multimodal construction of the Other in sectarian song. Social Semiotics 25: 614–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10350330.2015.1046216
Miller, P. (2012) Salary survey. Game Developer Magazine: Annual Game Career Guide (Fall): 33–50.
Miller, M. K. and Summers, A. (2007) Gender differences in video game characters’ roles. Appearances and attire as portrayed in video game magazines. Sex Roles 57: 733–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11199-007-9307-0
Oliver, M. B., Weaver, J. B. and Sargent, S. L. (2000) An examination of factors related to sex difference enjoyment of sad film. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 44: 282–300. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15506878jobem4402_8
Robinson, T., Callister, M., Clark, B. and Phillips, J. (2008) Violence, sexuality and gender stereotyping: a content analysis of official game websites. Web Journal of Mass Communications Research 13: 1–17.
Scharrer, E. (2004) Virtual violence: gender and aggression in video game advertisements. Mass Communication and Society 7: 393–412. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15327825mcs0704_2
Simon, J.-P. (1979) Le Filmique et le Comique. Paris: Éditions Albatros.
Steen, F. F., Greenfield, M. S., Davies, M. S. and Tynes, B. (2006) What went wrong with the Sims online? Cultural learning and barriers to identification in a massively multiplayer online role-playing game. In P. Vorderer and J. Bryant (eds) Playing Video Games: Motives, Responses and Consequences 307–23. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Stockburger, A. (2003) The game environment from an auditive perspective. Retrieved on 17 October 2016 from www.stockburger.at/research/paper-presentation-the-game-environment-from-an-auditive-perspective.
Tagg, P. (1984) Understanding musical ‘time sense’: concepts, sketches and consequences. In Tvärspel: Festskrift för Jan Ling (50 år) 21–4. Gothenburg: Skrifter från Musikvetenskapliga Institutionen.
Tagg, P. and Clarida, B. (2009) Ten Little Tunes. New York: Mass Media Music Scholars Press.
Van Leeuwen, T. (1999) Speech, Music, Sound. London: Macmillan. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-27700-1
Van Leeuwen, T. (2012) The critical analysis of musical discourse. Critical Discourse Studies 9(4): 319–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17405904.2012.713204
Way, L. (2013) Discourses of popular politics, war and authenticity in Turkish pop music. Social Semiotics 23: 715–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10350330.2013.819723
Way, L. S. and McKerrell, S. (2017) Music as Multimodal Discourse: Semiotics, Power and Protest. London: Bloomsbury.
Williams, D., Consalvo, M., Caplan, S. and Yee, N. (2009) Looking for gender: gender roles and behaviors among online gamers. Journal of Communication 59: 700–725. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2009.01453.x
Published
2016-12-20
Issue
Section
Articles
How to Cite
Machin, D., & van Leeuwen, T. (2016). Sound, music and gender in mobile games. Gender and Language, 10(3), 412-432. https://doi.org/10.1558/genl.v10i3.32039
