‘A whisperer for all Italians’
How wartime suspicions and legislation impacted the lives of Italian women in Queensland during World War II
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1558/qre.27102Keywords:
internment, Italian migrants, National Security (Aliens Control) Regulations 1939, war hysteria, women’s history, World War IIAbstract
While considerable research has been undertaken on internment experiences during the World War II in Australia, little has focused on the thousands of ‘enemy aliens’, especially Italian-born women and Australian-born women of Italian descent, whose family members were interned. This article explores the ways in which the lives of three Queensland Italian women were impacted by the National Security (Aliens Control) Regulations 1939 (Cth). One of these three women was ultimately interned as a result of being perceived as a threat to national security. The experiences of each, documented in official records, highlight concerns about their treatment under the Regulations. How did the Regulations restrict the civil rights of Italian women and how did they respond? Examination of these three women’s particular circumstances shows that they each suffered hardship and isolation when loved ones were interned, yet two actively sought to improve their situation by appealing to the authorities. Their stories reflect the ‘war hysteria’ and suspicion, as well as isolation, discrimination and victimisation, that form a largely unacknowledged history of the wartime experience of ‘enemy alien’ women.
References
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Mia Spizzica, ‘Italian civilian internment in South Australia revisited’, Journal of the Historical Society of South Australia 41 (2013), 65.
Mia Spizzica (ed.), Hidden lives: War, internment, and Australia’s Italians (Brisbane: Glass House Books, 2018).
Twomey, ‘In the front line’, 194.
David Henderson, ‘A travesty of British justice? Appealing against internment during the Second World War’, Australian Journal of Politics and History 65(1) (2019), 68. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajph.12531.
James Franklin, ‘Preface’, in Elkner et al., Enemy aliens, p. iv.
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Harris, ‘You’re better out of the way’, 290.
Catherine Dewhirst, ‘The Anglo-Italian Treaty: Australia’s imperial obligations to Italian migrants, 1883–1940’, in Gianfranco Cresciani and Bruno Mascitelli (eds), Italy and Australia: An asymmetrical relationship (Ballarat: Connor Court, 2014), 81.
Evan Smith, ‘Shifting undesirability: Italian migration, political activism and the Australian authorities from the 1920s to the 1950s’, Immigrants & Minorities 40(1–2) (2022), 107, https://doi.org/10.1080/02619288.2021.1977923; Helen Andreoni, ‘Olive or white? The colour of Italians in Australia’, Journal of Australian Studies, 27(77) (2003), 81, https://doi.org/10.1080/14443050309387853.
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Smith, ‘Shifting undesirability, 107.
David Brown, ‘Fascism within the pre-World War II Italian population of Queensland: A study of community processes and interaction’, Journal of the Royal Australian Historical Society 93(1) (2007), 35; David Brown, ‘The case of the Brisbane Fascio: The transnational politics of the Italian Fascist Party’, History Australia 6(1) (2009), 5.5. https://doi.org/10.2104/ha090005.
Brown, ‘The case of the Brisbane Fascio’, 5.3–5.4.
Brown, ‘The case of the Brisbane Fascio’, 5.5.
Andreoni, ‘Olive or white?’, 84. See also Dewhirst, ‘Collaborating on whiteness’.
‘Entered war for loot. Italy’s decision. Mr Menzies’s speech’, Sydney Morning Herald, 12 June 1940, p. 15.
Roland Stromberg, Europe in the Twentieth Century (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1997), p. 246.
Richard J. B. Bosworth, Benito Mussolini and the Fascist destruction of liberal Italy, 1900–1945 (Adelaide: Typecraft, 1973), p. 89.
Joan Beaumont, ‘Introduction: Internment in Australia 1939–45’, in Beaumont, O’Brien and Trinca, Under suspicion, 3.
Carmelo Belfiore, ‘Citizenship and naturalisation in a historical context: The story of Carmelo Belfiore’, in Beaumont, O’Brien and Trinca, Under suspicion, p. 42.
Gianfranco Cresciani, ‘The bogey of the Italian Fifth Column: Internment and the making of Italo-Australia’, in Richard J. Bosworth and Romano Ugolini (eds), War, internment and mass migration: The Italo-Australian experience, 1940–1990 (Rome: Gruppo Editoriale Internazionale, 1992), p. 11.
Cresciani, ‘The bogey of the Italian Fifth Column’, 11.
Cresciani, ‘The bogey of the Italian Fifth Column’, 12.
Angela Diana, ‘Italian women in Australia’, Affari sociali internazional 16(2) (1988), 77.
Kay Saunders, ‘“Inspired by patriotic hysteria?”’, 291.
Beaumont, ‘Introduction’, p. 5.
Saunders, ‘The stranger in our gates’, p. 38.
‘Police act quickly: Round up of Italian aliens’, Sydney Morning Herald, 11 June 1940, p. 9.
Hasluck, The government and the people, 1939–1941: Volume I, p. 594.
Kay Saunders, War on the homefront: State intervention in Queensland 1938–1948 (Brisbane: University of Queensland Press, 1993), p. 38.
See Hasluck, The Government and the People, 1939–1941: Volume I, p. 593.
Bevege, Behind barbed wire, p. 229.
Bevege, Behind barbed wire, p. 229.
Bunbury, Rabbits and spaghetti, p. 14.
Catherine Dewhirst, ‘Respectability and disloyalty: The competing obligations of L’Italiano’s editors’, in Catherine Dewhirst and Richard Scully (eds), The transnational voices of Australia’s migrant minority Press (Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2020), p. 82.
Cresciani, Italians in Australia, 100.
Saunders and Taylor, ‘The enemy within?’, 19.
O’Brien, The internment diaries of Mario Sardi, p. 185.
See Daniela Cosmini-Rose, ‘Italians in the Civil Alien Corps in South Australia: The “forgotten” enemy aliens’, Journal of the Historical Society of South Australia 42 (2014), 43–52.
Cosmini-Rose, ‘Italians in the Civil Alien Corps in South Australia’, 44–5; Hasluck, The Government and the People, Volume II, 284.
O’Brien, The internment diaries of Mario Sardi, 185.
‘A report to the Honourable Arthur Calwell’, in Lamidey, Aliens control, p. 6.
‘Registration of enemy aliens’ The Barrier Miner, 15 September 1939, p. 3.
‘Registration of aliens: What is required under the Act’, Barrier Miner, 13 September 1939, p. 1.
The Commonwealth of Australia Gazette (Canberra: L.F. Johnston, Commonwealth Government Printer, 1942), no. 91, 23 March 1942.
‘A report to the Honourable Arthur Calwell’, in Lamidey, Aliens control, p. 46.
The Commonwealth of Australia Gazette, no. 91, p. 736.
The Commonwealth of Australia Gazette, no. 91, p. 736.
See Glaros, ‘“Sometimes a little injustice must be suffered for the public good”’, 199–202.
‘Form of application for registration’, 27 June 1942, ‘TONON [nee Ballico] Angelina children – Mario and Delia Nationality – Italian arrived Brisbane on Caprera 19 September 1928’, NAA: BP25/1/ITALIAN TONON.
Report by Constable L. J. Todd from Mareeba Station to Aliens Registration Officer in Brisbane, 6 October 1942; and Angelina Tonon – Application Form, 27 June 1942, NAA: BP25/1/ITALIAN TONON.
This is assumed to be the Civil Alien Corps labour camp at Roma in Queensland.
Memorandum to ARO in Roma Street Police Station, Brisbane, 6 October 1942, NAA: BP25/1/ITALIAN TONON.
Report by Constable L. J. Todd from Mareeba Station to Aliens Registration Officer in Brisbane, 23 October 1942, NAA: BP25/1/ITALIAN TONON.
Report by Constable L. J. Todd from Mareeba Station to Aliens Registration Officer in Brisbane, 1 December 1942, NAA: BP25/1/ITALIAN TONON.
‘Notice of change of abode’ forms, NAA: BP25/1/ITALIAN TONON.
Report by E. G. Smith from Ingham, 21 August 1944, NAA: BP25/1/ITALIAN TONON.
Martinuzzi O’Brien, The Internment Diaries of Mario Sardi, p. 185.
Chesterman, ‘Natural-born subjects?’, 33–4. See also Commonwealth Government of Australia, The Acts of Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia passed during the year 1920, in portion of the first session of the eighth parliament of the Commonwealth (Melbourne: Albert J. Mulleti, Government Printer of the State of Victoria, 1920), p. 146.
Nationality Act 1920 (Cth) (No. 48 of 1920). See also M. Page Baldwin, ‘Subject to Empire: Married women and the British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act’, Journal of British Studies 40(4) (2001), 522–56. https://doi.org/10.1086/386266.
Chesterman, ‘Natural-born subjects?’, 32.
Dossier report on Margherita Stellino, 4 May 1942; and Recommendation from Inspector Mullally forwarded to the Deputy Director of Security in Brisbane, 22 August 1942, NAA: BP242/1/Q16936.
Spizzica, ‘Italian civilian internment in South Australia revisited’, 68.
Recommendation from Inspector Mullally forwarded to the Deputy Director of Security in Brisbane, 22 August 1942, NAA: BP242/1/Q16936.
Confidential report by Inspector of Police, Cairns, Sgt. P. G. Boyle to Cairns District in Babinda officers,
December 1939, ‘Stellino, Francesco [Italian, born 1901]; and wife Margherita [nee Grasso] – Queensland investigation case file’, NAA: BP242/1/Q16936.
Confidential report by Inspector of Police, Cairns, Sgt. P. G. Boyle to Cairns District in Babinda officers,
December 1939, NAA: BP242/1/Q16936.
Report on internee, Francesco Stellino, 20 June 1940, NAA: BP242/1/Q16936.
Copy of letter to Enoggera Camp Commandant from W. Richardson & Co, 5 July 1940, NAA: BP242/1/Q16936.
Letter by Minister for Public Works to Margherita Stellino, 9 July 1940. See NAA: BP242/1/Q16936.
Memorandum to Gaythorne Camp Commandant, Captain Spiers from Captains for Major Staff, 23 August 1940, NAA: BP242/1/Q16936.
Copy of letter by Margherita Stellino, December 1940 [?], NAA: BP242/1/Q16936.
Copy of letter by Margherita Stellino, December 1940 [?], NAA: BP242/1/Q16936.
Copy of letter by Margherita Stellino to Antonio Stellino, 16 September 1941, NAA: BP242/1/Q16936.
Report from Constable E. R. Stockwell from Babinda Police Station to the Inspector of Police in Cairns, 30 May 1942, NAA: BP242/1/Q16936.
Service and Casualty Form, 1942. See ‘Prisoner of War/Internee: Grasso, Felice; Date of birth – 18 February 1918; Nationality – Italian’, NAA: MP1103/1/Q30162, Melbourne.
Report by Constable E.R. Stockwell from Babinda Police Station to Inspector of Police in Cairns, 30 May 1942, NAA: BP242/1/Q16936.
Report Summary of dossier on Margherita Stellino by Deputy Director of Security for Queensland to The Assistant Deputy Director of Security from Townsville, 9 December 1942, NAA: BP242/1/Q16936.
Memorandum by District Security Officer in Cairns, J. Swallow to The Assistant Deputy Director of Security Service in Townsville, 7 January 1943, NAA: BP242/1/Q16936.
Copy of letter by Margherita Stellino to MP Riordan, 19 April 1941, NAA: BP242/1/Q16936.
Copy of letter by Margherita Stellino to MP Riordan, 19 April 1941, NAA: BP242/1/Q16936.
Report titled Margherita Stellino, n.d. See NAA: BP242/1/Q16936.
Report Summary of dossier on Margherita Stellino by Deputy Director of Security for Queensland to The Assistant Deputy Director of Security from Townsville, 9 December 1942, NAA: BP242/1/Q16936.
Letter from MP W. J. F. Riordan to Attorney General in Canberra, Dr. H. V. Evatt, n.d., NAA: BP242/1/Q16936.
Memorandum by Constable E.R. Stockwell at Cairns District, Babinda Station to Inspector of Police in Cairns, 30 May 1942, NAA: BP242/1/Q16936.
Report titled ‘Margherita Stellino’, n.d., NAA: BP242/1/Q16936.
Recommendation from Inspector Mullally forwarded to the Deputy Director of Security in Brisbane, 22 August 1942, NAA: BP242/1/Q16936.
Report by A. C. S. Clarke in Cairns, 23 June 1942, NAA: BP242/1/Q16936, NAA, Brisbane.
Report by A. C. S. Clarke in Cairns, 23 June 1942, NAA: BP242/1/Q16936, NAA, Brisbane.
Report by the District Security Officer, J. Swallow to The Assistant Deputy Director of Security Service in Townsville, 7 January 1943, NAA: BP242/1/Q16936.
Copy of list of ex-internees released to work under direction of Allied Works Council, 10 June 1943, NAA: BP242/1/Q16936.
Memorandum addressed to Security Service in Brisbane, 26 October 1943, NAA: BP242/1/Q16936.
Memorandum addressed to Security Service in Brisbane, 26 October 1943, NAA: BP242/1/Q16936.
Memorandum from Australian Military Forces Headquarters QLD to Deputy Director Security Service,
November 1943, NAA: BP242/1/Q16936.
Memorandum by Constable L.D. Bailey from Babinda Police Station to the ARO, Central Bureau, QLD (military personnel) reported on 16 January 1944, NAA: BP242/1/Q16936.
‘National Security (Aliens Control) Regulations – change of abode form’, n.d., NAA: BP242/1/Q16936.
Memorandum by the District Security Officer in Innisfail to the Deputy Director of Security in Queensland, 23 August 1945 and Telegram from the Allied Works Council, Brisbane to the Deputy Director of Security in Brisbane, 22 August 1945, NAA: BP242/1/Q16936, NAA, Brisbane.
Merenda, Interview with Maria Glaros.
Merenda, Interview with Connie Fall.
Merenda, Interview with Connie Fall.
Report by Constable J. Tapsall from Tully Police Station to Inspector of Police in Cairns, 7 July 1942, ‘Merenda Paolo, Nicoletta and Franceschina – Queensland investigation case files’, NAA: BP242/1/Q29763, Brisbane.
Francesca may have been referring to ‘Polentone’ – which was known to have been used in a derogative manner among Italian soldiers during World War II in Italy to describe someone as ‘slow’. Translated copy of letter from Francesca Merenda to Paolo Merenda, 13 February 1942, NAA: BP242/1/Q29763. In Italy, Southern Italians use ‘poléntoni’ to insult Northern Italians while Northern Italians use ‘terrone’ as a highly derogatory term to describe Southern Italians. All translations are from the dossiers.
Merenda, Interview with Maria Glaros.
Translated copy of letter from Francesca Merenda to Paolo Merenda, 13 February 1942, NAA: BP242/1/Q29763.
Translated copy of letter from Francesca Merenda to Paolo Merenda, 18 February 1942, NAA: BP242/1/Q29763.
Letter from Paolo Merenda to the Commandant of Gaythorne Internment Camp, 27 March 1942, NAA: BP242/1/Q29763.
Translated copy of letter from Francesca Merenda to Paolo Merenda, 6 March 1942, NAA: BP242/1/Q29763.
Translated copy of letter from Francesca Merenda to Paolo Merenda, about 4 March 1942, NAA: BP242/1/Q29763.
Translated copy of letter from Francesca Merenda to Paolo Merenda, about 4 March 1942, NAA: BP242/1/Q29763.
Report by translator Lieutenant R.E. Finzel from the Interpreters Section in Brisbane to I.S.G.S, Northern Command in Brisbane, 10 March 1942 and Report written by Constable J. Tapsall from Tully Police Station to Inspector of Police in Cairns, 7 July 1942, NAA: BP242/1/Q29763.
Report by interpreter R.E. Finzel from the Interpreters Section in Brisbane to the interpreter in Charge at the Australian Intelligence Corps in Brisbane, 16 June 1942, NAA: BP242/1/Q29763.
Report on Francesca Merenda, 7 August 1942, NAA: BP242/1/Q29763.
Copy of Statutory Declaration by J. Tapsall, 7 July 1942, NAA: BP242/1/Q29763.
Report from Tully Police Station on Francesca Merenda’s arrest addressed to Inspector in Cairns, 27 October 1942, NAA: BP242/1/Q29763.
Copy of transcript regarding an Advisory Committee appointed by the Minister for Defence held in Brisbane,
October 1942, p. 1, NAA: BP242/1/Q29763.
Copy of transcript regarding an Advisory Committee appointed by the Minister for Defence held in Brisbane,
October 1942, p. 2, NAA: BP242/1/Q29763.
Copy of transcript regarding an Advisory Committee appointed by the Minister for Defence held in Brisbane,
October 1942, p. 2, NAA: BP242/1/Q29763.
Copy of transcript regarding an Advisory Committee appointed by the Minister for Defence held in Brisbane,
October 1942, p. 2, NAA: BP242/1/Q29763.
Copy of transcript regarding an Advisory Committee appointed by the Minister for Defence held in Brisbane,
October 1942, p. 2, NAA: BP242/1/Q29763.
Copy of transcript regarding an Advisory Committee appointed by the Minister for Defence held in Brisbane,
October 1942, p. 3, NAA: BP242/1/Q29763.
Copy of transcript regarding an Advisory Committee appointed by the Minister for Defence held in Brisbane,
October 1942, p. 4, NAA: BP242/1/Q29763.
Copy of transcript regarding an Advisory Committee appointed by the Minister for Defence held in Brisbane,
October 1942, p. 4, NAA: BP242/1/Q29763.
Copy of transcript regarding an Advisory Committee appointed by the Minister for Defence held in Brisbane,
October 1942, p. 4, NAA: BP242/1/Q29763.
Merenda, Interview with Maria Glaros.
Richard White, ‘War and Australian society’, in Michael McKernan and Margaret Browne (eds), Australia: Two countries of war and peace (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1988), p. 408.
Richard White, ‘War and Australian society’, 408.
Nino Randazzo and Michael Cigler, The Italians in Australia (Melbourne: AE Press, 1987), p. 163.
Copy of transcript regarding an Advisory Committee appointed by the Minister for Defence held in Brisbane,
October 1942, p. 3, NAA: BP242/1/Q29763.
Merenda, Interview with Connie Fall.
Kay Saunders, ‘A different reconciliation: Civil liberties and internment policy in Australia during World War Two’, in Saunders and Daniels, Alien justice, p. 114.
Papalia, ‘The Italian “Fifth Column” in Australia’, 214, 231. See also Cresciani, ‘The bogey of the Italian Fifth Column’.
Merenda, interview with Connie Fall.
Merenda, Interview with Maria Glaros.
Franklin, ‘Preface’, iv.
