‘Singing the Lord’s Song in a Strange Land’
A ‘Bio-Ethnography’ of Christianity and Genetic Engineering in Scotland
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1558/ecotheology.v11i1.76Keywords:
Church of Scotland, genetic engineering, ethics,Abstract
Genetic engineering is at the forefront of scientific thought and practice. It has immense implications economically, environmentally, politically, and socially, questioning what we know as ‘life’, ‘nature’, and ‘humanity’, and possibly reframing human interaction with nature. Because of this it leads science and government into the realm of ethics. The latter has traditionally been seen to be the domain of religion, often seen as lacking relevance in today’s ‘modern’ world that has fragmented frameworks that previously supported or controlled individuals. However, the instability and isolation from ethical resources this creates may provide problems when dealing with challenging issues—such as genetic engineering—suggesting the need for ethical guidelines and support something that religion provides. The aim of this article, therefore, is to provide a qualitative understanding—a ‘Bio-Ethnography’—of how religious believers, in particular Church of Scotland Christians, perceive and experience genetic engineering highlighting the personal, social, and environmental, issues it raises, and exploring Christian understandings and negotiation of them.
References
Alexander, D.R. 1995 Science: Friend or Foe? (Cambridge Papers, 4, No. 3; Stapleford: Cambridge Papers).
Cloning Humans—Distorting the Image of God? (Cambridge Papers, 10, No. 2; Cambridge: Jubilee Centre).
Barton, S. (ed.) 1996 Where Shall Wisdom Be Found? Wisdom in the Bible, the Church and the Contemporary World (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark).
Berry, R.J. 2000 The Care of Creation: Focusing Concerns and Action (Downers Grove, IL and Leicester, UK: InterVarsity Press).
Birkett, K. 1997 Unnatural Enemies: An Introduction to Science and Christianity (Sydney, London: Matthias Media).
Boa, K., and G. Burnett 1999 Pursuing Wisdom: A Biblical Approach from Proverbs (Colorado Springs, Colorado: Navpress).
Breck, J. 1998 The Sacred Gift of Life: Orthodox Christianity and Bioethics. (Crestwood, NY: St Vladimir’s Seminary Press).
Bremner, M. 1999 GE: Genetic Engineering and You (London: HarperCollins Publishers).
Brown, H. (ed.) 2001 The Law and Christian Ethics: A Series of Lectures on Ethical Issues Facing Society Today (Edinburgh: St Andrews Press/The Church of Scotland, Board of Social Responsibility).
Brown, H., and K. Gibbs (eds.) 1996 Pre-Conceived Ideas: A Christian Perspective on IVF and Embryology (Edinburgh: St Andrews Press/The Church of Scotland, Board of Social Responsibility).
Brown, R.G. 2000 ‘Biblical Context for the Church’s Bioethics’, in de Cameron, Daniels and White (eds.) 2000: 220-34.
Bruce, D.M. 1997a ‘Patenting Human Genes: A Christian View’, Bulletin of Medical Ethics (January): 18-20.
b ‘A View from Edinburgh’, in Cole-Turner (ed.) 1997: 1-11.
‘Genetic Engineering—the Missing Values’, Reform (November): 16-17.
‘Ethics Keeping Pace with Technology’, in Cole-Turner (ed.) 2001: 34-49.
‘A Social Contract for Biotechnology: Shared Visions for Risky Technologies?’, Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics 15: 279-89.
a ‘Playing Dice with Creation: How Risky Should the New Genetics Be?’, in Deane-Drummond and Szerzynski (eds.) 2003: 151-64.
b ‘“Whose Genes Are They?” Genetics, Patenting and the Churches’, in Deane-Drummond (ed.) 2003: 257-73.
Bruce, D.M., and A. Bruce (eds.) 1998 Engineering Genesis: The Ethics of Genetic Engineering in Non-Human Species (London: Earthscan Publications).
Bruce, D.M., and J.T. Eldridge 2000 ‘The Role of Values in the GM Debate’, in M.P. Cottam, D.W. Harvey, R.P. Pape and J.E. Tait (eds.), Foresight and Precaution (Rotterdam: Balkema): 855-62.
Bruce, D.M., and D. Horrocks (eds.). 2001 Modifying Creation? GM Crops and Foods: A Christian Response (Evangelical Alliance Policy Commission Report; Carlisle, UK; Waynsboro, GA: Paternoster Press).
Burley, J. (ed.) 1999 The Genetic Revolution and Human Rights (Oxford: Oxford University Press).
Cahill, L. 1990 ‘Can Theology Have a Role in “Public” Bioethical Discourse?’ Hastings Center Report (Special Supplement, July/August): 10-14.
Callahan, D. 1990 ‘Religion and the Secularization of Bioethics’, Hastings Center Report (Special Supplement, July/August): 2-4.
Campbell, C.S. 1990 ‘Religion and Moral Meaning in Bioethics’, Hastings Center Report (Special Supplement, July/August): 4-10.
Carter, D. 2001 ‘Unholy Alliances: Religion, Science, and the Environment’, Zygon: Journal of Religion and Science, 36.2: 357-72.
Chapman, A.R. 1999a Unprecedented Choices: Religious Ethics at the Frontiers of Genetic Science (Minneapolis: Fortress Press).
Chapman, A.R. (ed.) 1999b Perspectives on Genetic Patenting: Religion, Science, and Industry in Dialogue (Washington: American Association for the Advancement of Science).
Church of Scotland 2001 Reports of the General Assembly (Edinburgh: St Andrews Press).
Cole-Turner, R. 1993 The New Genesis: Theology and the Genetic Revolution (Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox Press).
Cole-Turner, R. (ed.) 1997 Human Cloning: Religious Responses (Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox Press).
Beyond Cloning: Religion and the Remaking of Humanity (Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International).
Conrad, P., and J. Gabe (eds.) 1999 Sociological Perspectives on the New Genetics (Oxford: Basil Blackwell).
Cooper, N., C. Stevenson and G. Hale 1996 ‘The Biopsychosocial Model’, in N. Cooper, C. Stevenson and G. Hale (eds.), Integrating Perspectives on Health (Buckingham, PA: Open University Press): 1-17.
Crigger, B.-J. 1995 ‘Bioethnography: Fieldwork in the Lands of Medical Ethics’, Medical Anthropology Quarterly 9(3): 400-17.
de Cameron, N.M., S. Daniels and B.J. White (eds.) 2000 BioEngagement: Making a Christian Difference Through Bioethics Today (Grand Rapids/Cambridge: Eerdmans).
Deane-Drummond, C. 1997 Theology and Biotechnology: Implications for a New Science (London and Washington: Geoffrey Chapman).
Creation Through Wisdom: Theology and the New Biology (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark).
The Ethics of Nature (Oxford: Basil Blackwell).
Deane-Drummond, C. (ed.) 2003a Brave New World? Theology, Ethics and the Human Genome (London and New York: T. & T. Clark).
Deane-Drummond, C., R. Grove-White and B. Szerszynski 2003b ‘Genetically modified Theology: the Religious Dimensions of Public Concerns about Agricultural Biotechnology’, in Deane-Drummond and Szerszynski (eds.) 2003c: 17-38.
Deane-Drummond, C., and B. Szerszynski (eds.) 2003c Re-Ordering Nature: Theology, Society and the New Genetics (London/New York: T. &. T. Clark).
Demy, T.J., and G.P. Stewart (eds.) 1999 Genetic Engineering: A Christian Response (Grand Rapids: Kregel Publications).
Edwards, D. 1995 Jesus the Wisdom of God: An Ecological Theology (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books).
‘For Your Immortal Spirit Is in All Things: The Role of the Spirit in Creation‘, in D. Edwards (ed.), Earth Revealing, Earth Healing: Ecology and Christian Theology (Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press): 45-68.
Engel, G.L. 1981 ‘The Need for a New Medical Model: A Challenge for Biomedicine’, in A.L. Caplan, H. Tristram Englehart, Jr and J.J. McCartney (eds.), Concepts of Health and Disease: Interdisciplinary Perspectives (London, Amsterdam, Don Mills, Ontario, Sydney, Tokyo: Addison-Wesley): 589-605.
Fegusson, A. 1993 Health: The Strength to be Human (Leicester: InterVaristy Press).
Gottlieb, R. (ed.), 1995 This Sacred Earth: Religion, Nature, Environment (London and New York: Routledge).
Grove-White, R. 1998 ‘Environmental Knowledge and Public Policy Needs: On Humanising the Research Agenda’, in Lash, Szerszynski and Wynne (eds.) 1998: 269-86.
Hauerwas, S. 1998 ‘Salvation and Health: Why Medicine Needs the Church’, in Lammers and Verhey (eds.) 1998: 72-82.
Hearn, W.R. 1997 Being a Christian in Science (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press).
Hessel, D., and R.R. Reuther (eds.) 2000 Christianity and Ecology: Seeking the Well-being of Earth and Humans (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press).
Hollinger, D.P. 1999 ‘A Theology of Healing and Genetic Engineering’, in T.J Demy and G.P. Stewart (eds.), Genetic Engineering: A Christian Response (Grand Rapids: Kregel Publications): 295-304.
House of Commons 1995a Human Genetics: The Science and its Consequences (Third Report, Volume IV; Memoranda up to January 1995; Memoranda after January 1995 Science and Technology Committee. London: HMSO).
b Human Genetics: Memoranda Received up to January 31st 1995 (Science and Technology Committee; London: HMSO).
IBS (International Bible Society) 1998 The NIV Study Bible: New International Version (London, Sydney, Auckland: Hodder & Stoughton).
Jones, D.G. 1999 Valuing People: Human Value in a World of Medical Technology (Carlisle: Paternoster Press).
Kilner, J.F., R.D. Rentz and F.E. Young (eds.) 1997 Genetic Ethics: Do the Ends Justify the Genes (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans).
Kim, H.Y. 2000 ‘Response to Peter K.H. Lee’, in D. Hessel and R.R. Reuther (eds.), Christianity and Ecology: Seeking the Well-being of Earth and Humans (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press): 357-63.
Lammers, S.E., and A. Verhey (eds.) 1998 On Moral Medicine: Theological Perspectives in Medical Ethics (Grand Rapids/Cambridge, UK: Eerdmans).
Lash, S., B. Szerszynski and B. Wynne (eds.) 1998 Risk, Environment and Modernity: Towards a New Ecology (London, Thousand Oaks, New Delhi: Sage Publications).
Levitt, M. 2003 ‘“Just because we can do something doesn’t mean we should”: Young People’s Responses to Biotechnology’, in Deane-Drummond and Szerszynski (eds.) 2003c: 186-201.
Lewontin, R.C. 1993 The Doctrine of DNA: Biology as Ideology. (London: Penguin Books).
Ling, J.R. 2001 Responding to the Culture of Death: A Primer on Bioethical Issues. (Epsom: DayOne).
Marshall, P. 1992 ‘Anthropology and Bioethics’, Medical Anthropology Quarterly 6(1): 49-73.
Marshall, P., and B.A. Koenig 1996 ‘Bioethics in Antrhopology: Perspectives on Culture, Medicine, and Morality’, in C.K. Sargent and T.M. Johnson (eds.) Medical Anthropology: Contemporary Themes and Methods (Westport, CT/London: Praeger): 349-73.
McCormick, R.A. 1989 ‘Theology and Bioethics’, Hastings Center Report (March/April): 5-9.
McFague, S. 1995 ‘The Scope of the Body: The Cosmic Christ’, in Gottlieb (ed.) 1995: 286-96.
McGrath, A. 2000 ‘The Stewardship of Creation: An Evangelical Affirmation’, in Berry (ed.) 2000: 86-89.
The Re-enchantment of Nature: The Denial of Religion and the Ecological Crisis (New York, London, Toronto, Sydney, Auckland: Doubleday/Galilee).
Mitchell, C.B. 1999 ‘Genetic Engineering: Bane or Blessing?’, in Demy and Stewart (eds.) 1999: 29-40.
Mortensen, V. (ed.) 1995 Life and Death: Moral Implications of Biotechnology (Geneva: WCC Publications).
Moser, I. 1995 ‘Introduction: Mobilizing Critical Communities and Discourses on Modern Biotechnology’, in Shiva and Moser (eds.) 1995: 1-24.
Muller, J.H. 1994 ‘Anthropology, Bioethics, and Medicine: A Provocative Trilogy’, Medical Anthropology Quarterly 8(4): 448-67.
Nash, R. 1995 ‘The Greening of Religion’, in Gottlieb (ed.): 286-96.
Nelkin, D., and M.S. Lindee 1996 The DNA Mystique: The Gene as Cultural Icon (New York: W.H. Freeman and Co).
Nelkin, D., and L. Andrews 1998 ‘Homo Economicus: Commercialization of Body Tissue in the Age of Biotechnology’ in Hastings Center Report 28.5: 30-39.
Nelson, J.R. 1994 On the New Frontiers of Genetics and Religion (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans).
O’Mahony, P. (ed.) 1999 Nature, Risk and Responsibility: Discourses on Biotechnology (Basingstoke and London: Macmillan).
Ostnor, L., J. Hallamaa, S. Andersen, B. Bjornsson, G. Nilsson and L. Thunberg 1995 ‘The Lutheran Approach to Bioethics’, in Mortensen (ed.) 1995: 9-34.
Peters, T. 1997 Playing God? Genetic Determinism and Human Freedom (New York and London: Routledge).
Peterson, J.C. 2001 Genetic Turning Points: The Ethics of Human Genetic Intervention (Grand Rapids, Michigan/Cambridge, UK: Eerdmans).
Rae, S.B., and P.M. Cox 1999 Bioethics: A Christian Approach in a Pluralistic Age (Grand Rapids/Cambridge, UK: Eerdmans).
Reiss, M.J., and R. Straughan 1996 Improving Nature? The Science and Ethics of Genetic Engineering (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
Richardson, W.M., and W.J. Wildman (eds.) 1996 Science and Religion: History, Method, Dialogue (New York, London: Routledge).
Rifkin, J. 1998 The Biotech Century: How Genetic Commerce Will Change the World (London: Phoenix).
Rockefeller, S.C. 1992 ‘Faith and Community in an Ecological Age’, in S. Rockefeller and J.C. Elder (eds.), Spirit and Nature: Why the Environment is a Religious Issue (Boston: Beacon Press): 139-72.
Rose, N. 2001 ‘The Politics of Life Itself’, Theory, Culture & Society 18.6: 1-30.
Schluter, M. 1997 Relationism: Pursuing a Biblical Vision for Society (Cambridge Papers, 6, No. 4; Cambridge).
Shiva, V., and I. Moser (eds.) 1995 Biopolitics: A Feminist and Ecological Reader on Biotechnology (London and New Jersey: Zed Books Ltd).
Shuman, J.J. 1999 The Body of Compassion: Ethics, Medicine and the Church (Colorado and Oxford: Westview Press).
Storrar, W., and I. Torrance (eds.) 1995 Human Genetics: A Christian Perspective (Edinburgh: St Andrews Press/The Church of Scotland, Board of Social Responsibility).
Sutton, A. 2002 ‘Revisiting Reproductive Technology’s Slippery Slope in the Light of the Concepts of Imago Dei, Co-Creation, and Stewardship’, Ethics and Medicine: An International Journal of Bioethics 18.3: 145-54.
Szerszynski, B., and C. Deane-Drummond, 2003 ‘Re-Ordering Nature: A Postscript’, in Deane-Drummond and Szerszynski (eds.) 2003c: 312-24.
Torrance, I. (ed.) 2000 Bio-Ethics for the New Millennium. (Edinburgh: St Andrews Press/ The Church of Scotland, Board of Social Responsibility).
Van Dyck, J. 1995 Manufacturing Babies and Pubic Consent: Debating the New Reproductive Technologies (Basingstoke and London: Macmillan).
Verhey, A.D. 1990 ‘Talking of God—But with Whom?’, Hastings Center Report (Special Supplement, July/August): 20-24.
Watling, T. 2005 ‘“Experiencing” Alpha: Finding and Embodying the Spirit and Being Transformed—Empowerment and Control in a “Charismatic” Christian Worldview’, Journal of Contemporary Religion, 20.1: 91-108.
Watts, F. 2000a ‘Approaches to Bioethics’, in Watts (ed.) 2000b: 1-12.
Watts, F. (ed.) 2000b Christians and Bioethics (London: SPCK).
White, Lynn 1967 ‘The Historic Roots of Our Ecological Crisis’, Science 155: 1203-207.
Wind, J.P. 1990 ‘What Can Religion Offer Bioethics?’, Hastings Center Report (July/August): 18-20.
Woodhead, L., and P. Heelas 2000 Religion in Modern Times (Oxford: Basil Blackwell).
Wyatt, J. 1998 Matters of Life and Death: Today’s Healthcare Dilemmas in the Light of Christian Faith (Leicester: InterVarsity Press).
Wynne, B. 1998 ‘May the Sheep Safely Graze? A Reflexive View of the Expert-Lay Knowledge Divide’, in Lash, Szerszynski and Wynne (eds.) 1998: 27-43.