The Case for Chimpanzee Religion
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1558/jsrnc.v8i1.8Keywords:
Religion, spirituality, evolution, animals, primates, chimpanzees, ritual, symbolic behavior, metaphor, structuralism, trans-species definition of religionAbstract
Do chimpanzees engage in religious behaviors? To date this question remains unanswered. I use methods from religious studies and anthropology of religion that demonstrate an answer in the af?rmative. A comprehensive review of primatology reports reveals that chimpanzees do perform ritualized patterns of behavior in response to birth, death, consortship, and elemental natural phenomena. A structuralist analysis of these patterns shows that chimpanzees deploy similar formulaic action schemas involving recombination of syntagmatic and paradigmatic behaviors across all four of these life-situations. In the course of these performances, chimpanzees decontextualize and convert everyday communicative signals to express non-ordinary emotions of wonder and awe. The patterning of chimpanzee ritual behaviors evidences all the components of a prototypical trans-species de?nition of religion. These ?ndings support hypotheses that propose religious behaviors for other species, including hominins prior to Homo sapiens sapiens.References
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———. 2006. ‘Functionally Referential Calls in Chimpanzees: Abstract #103’, XXI Congress of the International Primatological Society. Online: http://www.asp.org/ips/IPS2006/abstractDisplay.cfm?abstractID=1476andconfEventID=1308.
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———. 2007b. The Emotional Lives of Animals: A Leading Scientist Explores Animal Joy, Sorrow, and Empathy—and Why They Matter (New York: New World Library).
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Eliade, Mircea. 1959. The Sacred and the Profane: The Nature of Religion (New York: Harper & Row).
Engel, Cindy. 2002. Wild Health: Lessons in Natural Wellness from the Animal Kingdom (New York: Houghton Mifflin).
Fauconnier, Gilles, and Mark Turner. 1994. Conceptual Projection and Middle Spaces (La Jolla, CA: University of San Diego).
———. 2002. The Way We Think: Conceptual Blending and the Mind's Hidden Complexities (New York: Basic Books).
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———. 2001. ‘Rain Dance’, Science and Spirit (May/June). Formerly online: http://www.science-spirit.org/articles/Articledetail.cfm?article_ID=229 (link no longer active).
———. 2005. ‘Primate Spirituality’, in Bron Taylor (ed.), Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature (New York: Continuum): 1303-306.
Guthrie, Stewart. 1980. ‘A Cognitive Theory of Religion’, Current Anthropology 21.2: 181-94. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/202429.
———. 1993. Faces in the Clouds: A New Theory of Religion (New York: Oxford University Press).
Harrod, James. 2011. ‘A Trans-species Definition of Religion’, Journal for the Study of Religion, Nature and Culture 5.3: 327-53.
Herrmann, Esther et al. 2007. ‘Humans Have Evolved Specialized Skills of Social Cognition: The Cultural Intelligence Hypothesis’, Science 317: 1360-66. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1146282.
Hirata, S. et al. 2001. ‘Capturing and Toying with Hyraxes (Dendrohyrax dorsalis) by Wild Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) at Bossou, Guinea’, American Journal of Primatology 53.2: 93-97. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1098-2345(200102)53:2<93::AID-AJP5>3.0.CO;2-X.
Hobaiter, Catherine, and Richard W. Byrne. 2011a. ‘The Gestural Repertoire of the Wild Chimpanzee’, Animal Cognition 14: 745-67. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10071-011-0409-2.
———. 2011b. ‘Serial Gesturing by Wild Chimpanzees: Its Nature and Function for Communication’, Animal Cognition 14: 827-38. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10071-011-0416-3.
Howell, Nancy R. 2003. ‘The Importance of Being Chimpanzee’, Theology and Science 1.2: 179-91. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1474670032000124586.
———. 2009. ‘Embodied Transcendence: Bonobos and Humans in Community’, Zygon 44.3: 601-12. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9744.2009.01018.x.
Johnson, Mark. 1987. The Body in the Mind: The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination, and Reason (Chicago: University of Chicago Press).
———. 2007. The Meaning of the Body: Aesthetics of Human Understanding (Chicago: University of Chicago Press). Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226026992.001.0001.
King, Barbara J. 2008. ‘Primates and Religion: A Biological Anthropologist’s Response to J. van Huyssteen’s Alone in the World?’, Zygon 43.2: 451-66. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9744.2008.00927.x.
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Leach, Edmund. 1967. The Structural Study of Myth and Totemism (New York: Tavistock).
Lévi-Strauss, Claude. 1967. Structural Anthropology (New York: Basic Books).
Lorenz, Konrad. 1963. On Aggression (New York: Bantam).
Miranda, Pierre. 2001. The Double Twist: From Ethnography to Morphodynamics (Toronto: University of Toronto Press).
Mithen, Steven. 1996. The Prehistory of the Mind: The Cognitive Origins of Art, Religion and Science (New York: Thames & Hudson).
Mosko, Mark S., and Frederick H. Damon. 2005. On the Order of Chaos: Social Anthropology and the Science of Chaos (New York: Berghahn Books).
Nishida, Toshisada et al. 1999. ‘Ethogram and Ethnography of Mahale Chimpanzees’, Anthropological Science 107.2: 141-88. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1537/ase.107.141.
Notman, Hugh, and Drew Rendall. 2005. ‘Contextual Variation in Chimpanzee Pant Hoots and its Implications for Referential Communication’, Animal Behaviour 70: 177–90. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2004.08.024.
Otto, Rudolf. 1950. The Idea of the Holy: An Inquiry into the Non-Rational Factor in the Idea of the Divine and its Relation to the Rational (New York: Oxford University Press).
Özçal?skan, Seyda, and Susan Goldin-Meadow. 2006. ‘X IS LIKE Y: The Emergence of Similarity Mappings in Children’s Early Speech and Gesture’, in Gitte Kristiansen, Michel Achard, René Dirven, and Francisco J. Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez (eds.), Cognitive Linguistics: Current Applications and Future Perspectives (New York: Mouton de Gruyter): 229-62.
Peterson, Gregory R. 2008. ‘Uniqueness, the Image of God, and the Problem of Method: Engaging van Huyssteen’, Zygon 43.2: 467-74. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9744.2008.00928.x.
Pika, Simone, and John Mitani. 2006. ‘Referential Gestural Communication in Wild Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)’, Current Biology 16.6: R191-92. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2006.02.037.
Povinelli, Daniel J., Jesse M. Bering, and Steve Giambrone. 2000. ‘Toward a Science of Other Minds: Escaping the Argument by Analogy.’ Cognitive Science 24.3: 509-41. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog2403_7.
Pruetz, Jill D., and Thomas C. LaDuke. 2010. ‘Brief Communication: Reaction to Fire by Savanna Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) at Fongoli, Senegal: Conceptualization of “Fire Behavior” and the Case for a Chimpanzee Model’, American Journal of Physical Anthropology 141.4: 646-50.
Putz, Oliver. 2009. 'Moral Apes, Human Uniqueness, and the Image of God’, Zygon 44.3: 613-24. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9744.2009.01019.x.
Rilling, James K. et al. 2007. ‘A Comparison of Resting-State Brain Activity in Humans and Chimpanzees’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 104.43: 17146-51. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0705132104.
Russon, A. E. 2004. ‘Great Ape Cognitive Systems’, in A.E. Russon and D.R. Begun (eds.), The Evolution of Great Ape Intelligence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press): 76-100. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511542299.008.
Savage-Rumbaugh, Sue, and Roger Lewin. 1994. Kanzi: The Ape at the Brink of the Human Mind (New York: John Wiley & Sons).
Sayers, Ken, and C. Owen Lovejoy. 2008. ‘The Chimpanzee Has No Clothes: A Critical Examination of Pan Troglodytes in Models of Human Evolution (with Comments)’, Current Anthropology 49.1: 87-114. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/523675.
Slocombe, Katie E., and Klaus Zuberbühler. 2005. ‘Functionally Referential Communication in a Chimpanzee’, Current Biology 15: 1779-84. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2005.08.068.
———. 2006. ‘Functionally Referential Calls in Chimpanzees: Abstract #103’, XXI Congress of the International Primatological Society. Online: http://www.asp.org/ips/IPS2006/abstractDisplay.cfm?abstractID=1476andconfEventID=1308.
Taglialatela, Jared P. et al. 2008. ‘Communicative Signaling Activates “Broca’s” Homolog in Chimpanzees’, Current Biology 18.5: 343-48. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2008.01.049.
Talmy, Leonard. 1988. ‘Force Dynamics in Language and Cognition’, Cognitive Science 12.1: 49–100. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog1201_2.
Teleki, Geza. 1973. ‘Group Response to the Accidental Death of a Chimpanzee in Gombe National Park, Tanzania’, Folia Primatologica 20: 81-94. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000155569.
Temerlin, Maurice K. 1975. Lucy: Growing up human (Palo Alto: Science & Behavior Books).
Tomasello, Michael. 2000. ‘Primate Cognition: Introduction to the Issue’, Cognitive Science 24.3: 351-61. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog2403_1.
Tomasello, Michael, Josep Call, and Brian Hare. 2003. ‘Chimpanzees Understand Psychological States: The Question Is Which Ones and to What Extent’, Trends in Cognitive Sciences 7.4: 153-56. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00035-4.
van Huyssteen, J. Wentzel. 2008. ‘Primates, Hominins, and Humans: From Species Specificity to Human Uniqueness? A Response to Barbara J. King, Gregory R. Peterson, Wesley J. Wildman, and Nancy R. Howell’, Zygon 43.2: 505-25. Doi:.
de Waal, Frans. 1989. Peacemaking among Primates (Cambridge: Harvard University Press).
———. 1996. Good Natured: The Origins of Right and Wrong in Humans and Other Animals (Cambridge: Harvard University Press).
———. 1999. ‘Cultural Primatology Comes of Age’, Nature 399: 635-36. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/21310.
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Published
2014-06-03
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Articles
How to Cite
Harrod, J. B. (2014). The Case for Chimpanzee Religion. Journal for the Study of Religion, Nature and Culture, 8(1), 8-45. https://doi.org/10.1558/jsrnc.v8i1.8
