An Ecology of Religiosity
Re-emphasizing Relationships between Humans and Nonhumans
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1558/jsrnc.v8i3.307Keywords:
Bateson, ecology, religiosity, Nature/Culture binary, human–nonhuman relationships, relational ontologies, DescolaAbstract
A growing anthropological literature on how various groups of people relate with nonhuman Others has questioned the universality of the conceptual binary between Nature and Culture and, particularly, the usefulness of the concept of ‘Nature’ to an understanding of human–nonhuman relationships. In light of this, what then becomes of ecology? In particular, can we retain the crucial ecological notions of system and form while bypassing ‘Nature’? Drawing on Gregory Bateson’s ecology of mind, I suggest that this is possible as long as we focus on processes and relationships. Moreover, the kinds of processes and relationships that more clearly highlight this endeavor are those that are informed by religious thoughts and actions. I offer the term ‘an ecology of religiosity’ to outline how an overall focus on relationships may dissolve a priori distinctions between Nature and Culture while foregrounding the context in which relationships reshape themselves through religious forms.
References
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———. 2012b. ‘Religion in Conservation and Management: A Durkheimian View’, Journal for the Study of Religion, Nature and Culture 6.4: 398?420.
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Batchelor, M., and K. Brown (eds.). 1992. Buddhism and Ecology (London: Cassell).
Bateson, G. 1973. Steps to an Ecology of Mind (London: Fontana).
———. 2002 [1979]. Mind and Nature: A Necessary Unity (Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press).
Bateson, G., and M.C. Bateson. 2005 [1987]. Angels Fear: Towards an Epistemology of the Sacred (Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press).
Bird-David, N. 1999. ‘“Animism” Revisited: Personhood, Environment and Relational Epistemology’, Current Anthropology 40 (Supplement): S67?S91. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/200061.
Boyer, P. 2008. ‘Religion: Bound to Believe?’, Nature 455: 1038?39. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/4551038a.
Boyer, P., and B. Bergstrom. 2008. ‘Evolutionary Perspectives on Religion’, Annual Review of Anthropology 37: 111?30. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.37.081407.085201.
Brightman, R. 1993. Grateful Prey: Rock Cree Human–Animal Relationships (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press).
Brunois, F. 2005. ‘Pour une approche interactive des savoirs locaux: l’ethno-éthologie’, Journal de le Société des Océanistes 120-21.1-2: 31?40.
Choy, T. 2012. Ecologies of Comparison: An Ethnography of Endangerment in Hong Kong (Durham, NC: Duke University Press).
Deane-Drummond, C. 2008. Ecotheology (Winona, MN: St. Mary’s Press).
Descola, P. 1994. In the Society of Nature: A Native Ecology in Amazonia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8676.2009.00063.x.
———. 1997. ‘Constructing Natures: Symbolic Ecology and Social Practice’, in Descola and Pálsson 1997: 82-102.
———. 2005a. Par-delà Nature et Culture (Paris: Editions Gallimard).
———. 2005b. ‘Ecology as Cosmological Analysis’, in A. Surralles and P. Garcia Hierro (eds.), The Land Within: Indigenous Territory and Perception of the Environment (Copenhagen: Centraltrykkeriet Skive A/S): 22-35.
———. 2006. ‘Beyond Nature and Culture’, Radcliffe-Brown Lecture in Social Anthropology, 2005, Proceedings of the British Academy 139: 137-55.
———. 2009. ‘Human Natures’, Social Anthropology 17.2: 145-57.
———. 2010. ‘Cognition, Perception and Worlding’, Interdisciplinary Science Reviews 35.3-4: 334-40. Online: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1722619.
Descola, P., and G. Pálsson (eds.). 1997. Nature and Society: Anthropological Perspectives (London: Routledge).
Feit, H. 1973. ‘The Ethnoecology of the Waswanipi Cree, or How Hunters Can Manage their Resources’, in B. Cox (ed.), Cultural Ecology: Readings on the Canadian Indians and Eskimos (Toronto, ON: McClelland & Stewart): 115-25.
Gibson, J. 1979. The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin).
Hallowell, A.I. 1981 [1960]. ‘Ojibwa Ontology, Behaviour and Worldview’, in S. Diamond (ed.), Culture in History: Essays in Honour of Paul Radin (New York: Octagon Books): 19-52.
Harries-Jones, P. 2008. ‘Gregory Bateson’s “Uncovery” of Ecological Aesthetics’, in Hoffmeyer 2008: 153-68.
Harvey, G. 2013. Food, Sex, and Strangers: Understanding Religion as Everyday Life (Bristol, CT: Acumen Publishing).
Herva, V.P. 2009. ‘Living (with) Things: Relational Ontology and Material Culture in Early Modern Northern Finland’, Cambridge Archaeological Journal 19.3: 388-97. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0959774309000572.
Hoffmeyer, J. (ed.). 2008. A Legacy for Living Systems: Gregory Bateson as Precursor to Biosemiotics (New York: Springer Science + Business Media B.V.).
Hornborg, A. 1996. ‘Ecology as Semiotics: Outlines of a Contextualist Paradigm for Human Ecology’, in Descola and Pálsson 1997: 45-62. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00141840600603129.
———. 2006. ‘Animism, Fetishism, and Objectivism as Strategies for Knowing (or Not Knowing) the World’, Ethnos 71.1: 21-32.
Houseman, M. 2006. ‘Relationality’, in J. Kreinath, J. Snoek, and M. Strausberg (eds.), Theorizing Rituals: Classical Topics, Theoretical Approaches, Analytical Concepts, Annotated Bibliography (Leiden: Brill): 413-28.
Houseman, M., and C. Severi. 1998. Naven, or the Other Self: A Relational Approach to Ritual Action (Leiden: Brill).
Howell, S. 1984. Society and Cosmos: Chewong of Peninsular Malaysia (Chicago: University of Chicago Press).
Hultkrantz, Â. 1956. ‘Configurations of Religious Belief among the Wind River Shoshoni’, Ethnos: Journal of Anthropology 21.3-4: 194-215.
———. 1966. ‘An Ecological Approach to Religion’, Ethnos: Journal of Anthropology 31.1-4: 131-50.
Hutchison, E. 1948. ‘Circular Causal Systems in Ecology’, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 50: 221-46. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1948.tb39854.x.
Ingold, T. 1992. ‘Culture and the Perception of the Environment’, in D. Parkin and E. Croll (eds.), Bush Base, Forest Farm: Culture, Environment and Development (London: Routledge): 39-57.
———. 1993. ‘Globes and Spheres: The Topology of Environmentalism’, in K. Milton (ed.), Environmentalism: The View from Anthropology (London: Routledge): 31-42. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203449653_chapter_2.
———. 2000. The Perception of the Environment: Essays in Livelihood, Dwelling and Skill (London: Routledge). Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203466025.
———. 2006. ‘Rethinking the Animate, Re-animating Thought’, Ethnos 71.1: 9-20. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00141840600603111.
Jenkins, W. 2008. Ecologies of Grace: Environmental Ethics and Christian Theology (Oxford: Oxford University Press). Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195328516.001.0001.
Jimenez, A., and R. Willerslev. 2007. ‘“An Anthropological Concept of the Concept”: Reversibility among the Siberian Yukaghirs’, Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 13.3: 527-44. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9655.2007.00441.x.
Kapferer, B. 2005. ‘Ritual Dynamics and Virtual Practice: Beyond Representation and Meaning’, in D. Handelman and G. Lindquist (eds.), Ritual in its own Right: Exploring the Dynamics of Transformation (London: Berghahn): 35-54.
Kopenawa, D., and B. Albert. 2013. The Falling Sky: Words of a Yanomami Shaman (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press). Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.4159/harvard.9780674726116.
Mengel, G. 2008. ‘Re-enchanting Evolution: Transcending Fundamentalisms through a Mythopoeic Epistemology’, in Hoffmeyer 2008: 213-28.
Messer, E., and M. Lambek (eds.). 2001. Ecology and the Sacred: Engaging the Anthropology of Roy A. Rappaport (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press).
Orlove, B. 1980. ‘Ecological Anthropology’, Annual Review of Anthropology 9: 235-73. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.an.09.100180.001315.
Pálsson, G. 1997. ‘Human–Environmental Relations: Orientalism, Paternalism and Communalism’, in Descola and Pálsson 1997: 63-81.
Pedersen, M. 2011. Not Quite Shamans: Spirit Worlds and Political Lives in Northern Mongolia (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press).
Poirier, S. 2008. ‘Reflections on Indigenous Cosmopolitics’, Anthropologica 50.1: 75-85.
Rappaport, R. 1984 [1968]. Pigs for the Ancestors: Ritual in the Ecology of a New Guinea People (Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press).
———. 1990. ‘Ecosystems, Population and People’, in E.F. Moran (ed.), The Ecosystem Approach in Anthropology: From Concept to Practice (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press): 41-75.
Read, K. 1998. Time and Sacrifice in the Aztec Cosmos (Indianapolis: Indiana University Press).
Reichel-Dolmatoff, G. 1976. ‘Cosmology as Ecological Analysis: A View from the Rain Forest’, Man n.s. 11.3: 307-18.
Saler, B. 1993. Conceptualizing Religion: Immanent Anthropologists, Transcendent Natives and Unbounded Categories (Leiden: Brill).
Sponsel, L.E. 2010. ‘Religion and Environment: Exploring Spiritual Ecology’, in S. Coleman and R. Sarro (eds.), Religion and Society: Advances in Research (New York: Berghahn Books): 131-45.
Strathern, M. 1980. ‘No Nature, No Culture: The Hagen Case’, in C. MacCormack and M. Strathern (eds.), Nature, Culture and Gender (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press): 174-222.
———. 1999. Property, Substance and Effect: Anthropological Essays on Persons and Things (London: Athlone Press).
Taylor, B. 2007. ‘Exploring Religion, Nature and Culture: Introducing the Journal for the Study of Religion, Nature and Culture’, Journal for the Study of Religion, Nature and Culture 1.1: 5-24.
———. 2009. Dark Green Religion: Nature Spirituality and the Planetary Future (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press).
Vayda, A.P., and B. McCay. 1975. ‘New Directions in Ecology and Ecological Anthropology’, Annual Review of Anthropology 4: 293-306. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.an.04.100175.001453.
Viveiros de Castro, E. 1992. From the Enemy’s Point of View: Humanity and Divinity in an Amazonian Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press).
———. 1998. ‘Cosmological Deixis and Amerindian Perspectivism’, Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 4.3: 469-88. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3034157.
———. 2004a. ‘Exchanging Perspectives: The Transformation of Objects into Subjects in Amerindian Ontologies’, Common Knowledge 10.3: 463-84. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/0961754X-10-3-463.
———. 2004b. ‘Perspectival Anthropology and the Method of Controlled Equivocation’, Tipití: Journal of the Society for the Anthropology of Lowland South America 2.1: 3-22.
Von Uexküll, J. 1957. ‘A Stroll through the World of Animals and Men: A Picture Book of Invisible Worlds’, in C.H. Schiller (ed.), Instinctive Behavior: The Development of a Modern Concept (New York: International Universities Press): 5-128.
———. 1982 [1940]. ‘The Theory of Meaning’, Semiotica 42: 25-82. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/semi.1982.42.1.25.
Wagner, R. 1977. ‘Scientific and Indigenous Papuan Conceptualizations of the Innate: A Semiotic Critique of the Ecological Perspective’, in T. Bayliss-Smith and R. Feachem (eds.), Subsistence and Survival: Rural Ecology in the Pacific (London: Academic Press): 385-410. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-083250-7.50018-2.
Webb, C. 2013. ‘G. Evelyn Hutchison and Norbert Wiener: Systems in Warfare and Ecology’. Online: http://ccwebbb.wordpress.com/2013/02/11/putting-thesystem-in-ecosystem/.
Willerslev, R. 2007. Soul Hunters: Hunting, Animism and Personhood among the Siberian Yukaghirs (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press).
———. 2012b. ‘Religion in Conservation and Management: A Durkheimian View’, Journal for the Study of Religion, Nature and Culture 6.4: 398?420.
Astor-Aguilera, M. 2010. The Maya World of Communicating Objects: Quadripartite Crosses, Trees, and Stones (Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press).
Batchelor, M., and K. Brown (eds.). 1992. Buddhism and Ecology (London: Cassell).
Bateson, G. 1973. Steps to an Ecology of Mind (London: Fontana).
———. 2002 [1979]. Mind and Nature: A Necessary Unity (Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press).
Bateson, G., and M.C. Bateson. 2005 [1987]. Angels Fear: Towards an Epistemology of the Sacred (Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press).
Bird-David, N. 1999. ‘“Animism” Revisited: Personhood, Environment and Relational Epistemology’, Current Anthropology 40 (Supplement): S67?S91. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/200061.
Boyer, P. 2008. ‘Religion: Bound to Believe?’, Nature 455: 1038?39. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/4551038a.
Boyer, P., and B. Bergstrom. 2008. ‘Evolutionary Perspectives on Religion’, Annual Review of Anthropology 37: 111?30. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.37.081407.085201.
Brightman, R. 1993. Grateful Prey: Rock Cree Human–Animal Relationships (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press).
Brunois, F. 2005. ‘Pour une approche interactive des savoirs locaux: l’ethno-éthologie’, Journal de le Société des Océanistes 120-21.1-2: 31?40.
Choy, T. 2012. Ecologies of Comparison: An Ethnography of Endangerment in Hong Kong (Durham, NC: Duke University Press).
Deane-Drummond, C. 2008. Ecotheology (Winona, MN: St. Mary’s Press).
Descola, P. 1994. In the Society of Nature: A Native Ecology in Amazonia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8676.2009.00063.x.
———. 1997. ‘Constructing Natures: Symbolic Ecology and Social Practice’, in Descola and Pálsson 1997: 82-102.
———. 2005a. Par-delà Nature et Culture (Paris: Editions Gallimard).
———. 2005b. ‘Ecology as Cosmological Analysis’, in A. Surralles and P. Garcia Hierro (eds.), The Land Within: Indigenous Territory and Perception of the Environment (Copenhagen: Centraltrykkeriet Skive A/S): 22-35.
———. 2006. ‘Beyond Nature and Culture’, Radcliffe-Brown Lecture in Social Anthropology, 2005, Proceedings of the British Academy 139: 137-55.
———. 2009. ‘Human Natures’, Social Anthropology 17.2: 145-57.
———. 2010. ‘Cognition, Perception and Worlding’, Interdisciplinary Science Reviews 35.3-4: 334-40. Online: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1722619.
Descola, P., and G. Pálsson (eds.). 1997. Nature and Society: Anthropological Perspectives (London: Routledge).
Feit, H. 1973. ‘The Ethnoecology of the Waswanipi Cree, or How Hunters Can Manage their Resources’, in B. Cox (ed.), Cultural Ecology: Readings on the Canadian Indians and Eskimos (Toronto, ON: McClelland & Stewart): 115-25.
Gibson, J. 1979. The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin).
Hallowell, A.I. 1981 [1960]. ‘Ojibwa Ontology, Behaviour and Worldview’, in S. Diamond (ed.), Culture in History: Essays in Honour of Paul Radin (New York: Octagon Books): 19-52.
Harries-Jones, P. 2008. ‘Gregory Bateson’s “Uncovery” of Ecological Aesthetics’, in Hoffmeyer 2008: 153-68.
Harvey, G. 2013. Food, Sex, and Strangers: Understanding Religion as Everyday Life (Bristol, CT: Acumen Publishing).
Herva, V.P. 2009. ‘Living (with) Things: Relational Ontology and Material Culture in Early Modern Northern Finland’, Cambridge Archaeological Journal 19.3: 388-97. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0959774309000572.
Hoffmeyer, J. (ed.). 2008. A Legacy for Living Systems: Gregory Bateson as Precursor to Biosemiotics (New York: Springer Science + Business Media B.V.).
Hornborg, A. 1996. ‘Ecology as Semiotics: Outlines of a Contextualist Paradigm for Human Ecology’, in Descola and Pálsson 1997: 45-62. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00141840600603129.
———. 2006. ‘Animism, Fetishism, and Objectivism as Strategies for Knowing (or Not Knowing) the World’, Ethnos 71.1: 21-32.
Houseman, M. 2006. ‘Relationality’, in J. Kreinath, J. Snoek, and M. Strausberg (eds.), Theorizing Rituals: Classical Topics, Theoretical Approaches, Analytical Concepts, Annotated Bibliography (Leiden: Brill): 413-28.
Houseman, M., and C. Severi. 1998. Naven, or the Other Self: A Relational Approach to Ritual Action (Leiden: Brill).
Howell, S. 1984. Society and Cosmos: Chewong of Peninsular Malaysia (Chicago: University of Chicago Press).
Hultkrantz, Â. 1956. ‘Configurations of Religious Belief among the Wind River Shoshoni’, Ethnos: Journal of Anthropology 21.3-4: 194-215.
———. 1966. ‘An Ecological Approach to Religion’, Ethnos: Journal of Anthropology 31.1-4: 131-50.
Hutchison, E. 1948. ‘Circular Causal Systems in Ecology’, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 50: 221-46. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1948.tb39854.x.
Ingold, T. 1992. ‘Culture and the Perception of the Environment’, in D. Parkin and E. Croll (eds.), Bush Base, Forest Farm: Culture, Environment and Development (London: Routledge): 39-57.
———. 1993. ‘Globes and Spheres: The Topology of Environmentalism’, in K. Milton (ed.), Environmentalism: The View from Anthropology (London: Routledge): 31-42. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203449653_chapter_2.
———. 2000. The Perception of the Environment: Essays in Livelihood, Dwelling and Skill (London: Routledge). Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203466025.
———. 2006. ‘Rethinking the Animate, Re-animating Thought’, Ethnos 71.1: 9-20. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00141840600603111.
Jenkins, W. 2008. Ecologies of Grace: Environmental Ethics and Christian Theology (Oxford: Oxford University Press). Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195328516.001.0001.
Jimenez, A., and R. Willerslev. 2007. ‘“An Anthropological Concept of the Concept”: Reversibility among the Siberian Yukaghirs’, Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 13.3: 527-44. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9655.2007.00441.x.
Kapferer, B. 2005. ‘Ritual Dynamics and Virtual Practice: Beyond Representation and Meaning’, in D. Handelman and G. Lindquist (eds.), Ritual in its own Right: Exploring the Dynamics of Transformation (London: Berghahn): 35-54.
Kopenawa, D., and B. Albert. 2013. The Falling Sky: Words of a Yanomami Shaman (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press). Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.4159/harvard.9780674726116.
Mengel, G. 2008. ‘Re-enchanting Evolution: Transcending Fundamentalisms through a Mythopoeic Epistemology’, in Hoffmeyer 2008: 213-28.
Messer, E., and M. Lambek (eds.). 2001. Ecology and the Sacred: Engaging the Anthropology of Roy A. Rappaport (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press).
Orlove, B. 1980. ‘Ecological Anthropology’, Annual Review of Anthropology 9: 235-73. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.an.09.100180.001315.
Pálsson, G. 1997. ‘Human–Environmental Relations: Orientalism, Paternalism and Communalism’, in Descola and Pálsson 1997: 63-81.
Pedersen, M. 2011. Not Quite Shamans: Spirit Worlds and Political Lives in Northern Mongolia (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press).
Poirier, S. 2008. ‘Reflections on Indigenous Cosmopolitics’, Anthropologica 50.1: 75-85.
Rappaport, R. 1984 [1968]. Pigs for the Ancestors: Ritual in the Ecology of a New Guinea People (Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press).
———. 1990. ‘Ecosystems, Population and People’, in E.F. Moran (ed.), The Ecosystem Approach in Anthropology: From Concept to Practice (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press): 41-75.
Read, K. 1998. Time and Sacrifice in the Aztec Cosmos (Indianapolis: Indiana University Press).
Reichel-Dolmatoff, G. 1976. ‘Cosmology as Ecological Analysis: A View from the Rain Forest’, Man n.s. 11.3: 307-18.
Saler, B. 1993. Conceptualizing Religion: Immanent Anthropologists, Transcendent Natives and Unbounded Categories (Leiden: Brill).
Sponsel, L.E. 2010. ‘Religion and Environment: Exploring Spiritual Ecology’, in S. Coleman and R. Sarro (eds.), Religion and Society: Advances in Research (New York: Berghahn Books): 131-45.
Strathern, M. 1980. ‘No Nature, No Culture: The Hagen Case’, in C. MacCormack and M. Strathern (eds.), Nature, Culture and Gender (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press): 174-222.
———. 1999. Property, Substance and Effect: Anthropological Essays on Persons and Things (London: Athlone Press).
Taylor, B. 2007. ‘Exploring Religion, Nature and Culture: Introducing the Journal for the Study of Religion, Nature and Culture’, Journal for the Study of Religion, Nature and Culture 1.1: 5-24.
———. 2009. Dark Green Religion: Nature Spirituality and the Planetary Future (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press).
Vayda, A.P., and B. McCay. 1975. ‘New Directions in Ecology and Ecological Anthropology’, Annual Review of Anthropology 4: 293-306. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.an.04.100175.001453.
Viveiros de Castro, E. 1992. From the Enemy’s Point of View: Humanity and Divinity in an Amazonian Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press).
———. 1998. ‘Cosmological Deixis and Amerindian Perspectivism’, Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 4.3: 469-88. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3034157.
———. 2004a. ‘Exchanging Perspectives: The Transformation of Objects into Subjects in Amerindian Ontologies’, Common Knowledge 10.3: 463-84. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/0961754X-10-3-463.
———. 2004b. ‘Perspectival Anthropology and the Method of Controlled Equivocation’, Tipití: Journal of the Society for the Anthropology of Lowland South America 2.1: 3-22.
Von Uexküll, J. 1957. ‘A Stroll through the World of Animals and Men: A Picture Book of Invisible Worlds’, in C.H. Schiller (ed.), Instinctive Behavior: The Development of a Modern Concept (New York: International Universities Press): 5-128.
———. 1982 [1940]. ‘The Theory of Meaning’, Semiotica 42: 25-82. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/semi.1982.42.1.25.
Wagner, R. 1977. ‘Scientific and Indigenous Papuan Conceptualizations of the Innate: A Semiotic Critique of the Ecological Perspective’, in T. Bayliss-Smith and R. Feachem (eds.), Subsistence and Survival: Rural Ecology in the Pacific (London: Academic Press): 385-410. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-083250-7.50018-2.
Webb, C. 2013. ‘G. Evelyn Hutchison and Norbert Wiener: Systems in Warfare and Ecology’. Online: http://ccwebbb.wordpress.com/2013/02/11/putting-thesystem-in-ecosystem/.
Willerslev, R. 2007. Soul Hunters: Hunting, Animism and Personhood among the Siberian Yukaghirs (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press).
Published
2014-12-16
Issue
Section
Articles
How to Cite
Tan, G. G. (2014). An Ecology of Religiosity: Re-emphasizing Relationships between Humans and Nonhumans. Journal for the Study of Religion, Nature and Culture, 8(3), 307-328. https://doi.org/10.1558/jsrnc.v8i3.307
