Trojan Horses Facing the Mirror
A Comparison between Religious Anti-Environmental Movement Organizations in the US and Brazil
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1558/jsrnc.24014Keywords:
Religious anti-environmental movement organizations, religious environmentalism, faith-based climate contrarianism, climate skepticism, religious framings, religious countermovements, Christian conservatism, Catholic religious ecologies, Evangelical environmentalism, wise use stewardshipAbstract
We examine the appropriations of stewardship ethics by religious anti-environmental movement organizations (RAEMOs). Based on a qualitative analysis of promotional materials, we highlight similar framing alignment processes carried out by two RAEMOs in different contexts: the US Cornwall Alliance and the Brazilian Institute Plinio Corrêa de Oliveira (IPCO). We found that, despite their different theological inspirations and target audiences, the RAEMOs use the same general master counter-framing to stimulate a sense of battle in which ‘genuine stewards’ must resist anti-Christian ideologies camouflaged as environmentalism, restricting themselves to a pasteurized care for creation, symbolized by the concept of gardening. As for the framing variations, we suggest that they are driven not so much by distinct religious beliefs as by political and economic coalitions, mainly linked to the fossil fuels sector in the North American case, and agribusiness, in the Brazilian case.
References
Alumkal, Antony. 2017. Paranoid Science: The Christian Right’s War on Reality (New York: New York University Press).
Americo, Paulo. 2017. ‘Ecologismo Radical Contradição e Ódio a Deus’. 10 May. https://ipco.org.br/ecologismo-radical-contradicao-e-odio-a-deus/#.XLTl8ehKinV
Bailey, David, and Jonathan Borwein. 2012. ‘Is Believing in Climate Change “An Insult to God?”’, HuffPost. 7 December. https://www.huffpost.com
Barreto, Nelson, and Paulo Chaves. 2012. Preservação da Natureza ou Cavalo de Troia? (São Paulo: IPCO).
Bean, Lydia, and Steven M. Teles. 2015. ‘Spreading the Gospel of Climate Change: An Evangelical Battleground’, New America. https://static.newamerica.org/attachments/11649-spreading-the-gospel-of-climate-change/climate_care11.9.4f0142a50aa24a2ba65020f7929f6fd7.pdf
Beisner, Calvin. 2015. ‘There is no Moral Virtue in Being Wrong’, The American TFP, 6 August. https://www.tfp.org/there-is-no-moral-virtue-in-being-wrong-interview-with-dr-calvin-beisner-of-the-cornwall-alliance-on-the-encyclical-laudato-si/
———. 2010. ‘Introduction’, in Cornwall Alliance Resisting the Green Dragon Discussion Guide (Burke: Cornwall Alliance): 2–3.
———. 1997. Where Garden Meets Wilderness: Evangelical Entry into the Environmental Debate (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans).
Beisner, Calvin, Paul Driessen, Ross McKitrick, and Roy Spencer. 2006. ‘A Call to Truth, Prudence, and Protection of the Poor: An Evangelical Response to Global Warming’. https://www.cornwallalliance.org/docs/a-call-to-truth-prudence-and-protection-of-the-poor.pdf
Benford, Robert. 1997. ‘An Insider’s Critique of the Social Movement Framing Perspective’, Sociological Inquiry 67.4: 409–30. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475682X.1997.tb00445.x
Benford, Robert, and David Snow. 2000. ‘Framing Processes and Social Movements: An Overview and Assessment’, Annual Review of Sociology 26: 611–39. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.26.1.611
Benkler, Yochai, Robert Faris, and Hal Roberts. 2018. Network Propaganda: Manipulation, Disinformation and Radicalization in American Politics (New York: Oxford University Press).
Brambilla, Helio. 2010. ‘Agropecuária = Pilar de Estabilidade e Segurança’. 11 June. https://ipco.org.br/agropecuaria-pilar-de-estabilidade-e-seguranca/
Campos, Paulo. 2019. ‘Em Defesa da Soberania da Região Amazônica e de Seu Desenvolvimento’. 24 July. https://ipco.org.br/em-defesa-da-soberania-da-regiao-amazonica-e-de-seu-desenvolvimento/
Chaves, Paulo. 2019. ‘Tempos Novos, Muito Novos’. 10 September. https://ipco.org.br/tempos-novos-muito-novos/
Coan, Travis, Constantine Boussalis, John Cook, and Mirjam Nanko. 2021. ‘Computer-Assisted Classification of Contrarian Claims About Climate Change’, Scientific Reports 11.22320. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-01714-4
Cohen, Geoffrey, David Sherman, Anthony Bastardi, Lilian Hsu, Michelle Mcgoey, and Lee Ross. 2007. ‘Bridging the Partisan Divide: Self-Affirmation Reduces Ideological Closed-Mindedness and Inflexibility in Negotiation’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 93.3: 415–30. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.93.3.415
Cornwall Alliance. 2015. ‘An Open Letter to Pope Francis on Climate Change’. 27 April. https://cornwallalliance.org/anopenlettertopopefrancisonclimatechange
———. 2010. Resisting the Green Dragon Discussion Guide (Burke: Cornwall Alliance).
———. 2009a. ‘A Renewed Call to Truth, Prudence, and Protection of the Poor’. https://cornwallalliance.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/RCTT-updated-footer.pdf
———. 2009b. ‘An Evangelical Declaration on Global Warming’. https://cornwallalliance.org/2009/05/evangelical-declaration-on-global-warming/
Dias, Tatiana. 2019. ‘Operation Amazon Reux’, The Intercept. 20 September. https://theintercept.com/2019/09/20/amazon-brazil-army-bolsanaro/
Dufaur, Luis. 2012. ‘Trabalhador-Próspero-Conservador Ou Hippie-Vagabundo-Esquerdista?’ 21 February. https://ipco.org.br/trabalhadorprosperoconservadorou-hippievagabundoesquerdista-opcao-divisoria-face-aos-mitos-ambientalistas/#.XLaLRuhKinV
———. 2011a. ‘Empresa Mineira Pretende Vender Insetos Para Consumo Humano’. 21 June. https://ipco.org.br/empresa-mineira-pretende-vender-insetos-para-consumo-humano/
———. 2011b. ‘Homem e Pecuária Não Aumentam Metano No Ar’. https://ipco.org.br/homem-e-pecuaria-nao-aumentam-metano-no-ar-%e2%80%92-comunismoverde-busca-outro-pretexto-contra-o-agronegocio/
Dunlap, Riley, and Robert Brulle. 2020. ‘Sources and Amplifiers of Climate Change Denial’ in David Holmes and Lucy Richardson (eds.) Research Handbook on Communicating Climate Change (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar): 49–61.
Dunlap, Riley, and Aaron McCright. 2015. ‘Challenging Climate Change: The Denial Countermovement’ in R. Dunlap and R. Brulle (eds.) Climate Change and Society (New York: Oxford University Press): 300–32.
Ellingson, Stephen. 2016. To Care for Creation: The Emergence of the Religious Environmental Movement (Chicago: University of Chicago Press).
Fellet, João. 2019. ‘Monarquistas Ocupam Cargos em Brasília e Reabilitam Grupo Católico Ultraconservador’, BBC News Brasil. 4 April. www.bbc.com/portuguese/brasil-47728267
Fischer, Frank. 2019. ‘Knowledge Politics and Post-Truth in Climate Denial: On the Social Construction of Alternative Facts’, Critical Policy Studies 13.2: 133–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/19460171.2019.1602067
Fletcher, Amy. 2009. ‘Clearing the Air: The Contribution of Frame Analysis to Understanding Climate Policy in the United States’, Environmental Politics 18.5: 800–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/09644010903157123
Hempel, Lynn, Kelsea MacIlroy, and Keith Smith. 2014. ‘Framing the Environment: The Cornwall Alliance, Laissez-faire Environmentalism, and the Green Dragon’, Journal of the Sociology and Theory of Religion 3.1: 2–31.
Jacques, Peter, Riley Dunlap, and Mark Freeman. 2008. ‘The Organization of Denial: Conservative Think Tanks and Environmental Scepticism’, Environmental Politics 17.3: 349–85. https://doi.org/10.1080/09644010802055576
Jacques, Peter, and Claire Knox. 2016. ‘Hurricanes and Hegemony: A Qualitative Analysis of Micro-Level Climate Change Denial Discourses’, Environmental Politics 25.5: 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/09644016.2016.1189233
Johnston, Hank. 1995. ‘A Methodology for Frame Analysis: From Discourse to Cognitive Schemata’ in Hank Johnston and Bert Klandermans (eds.) Social Movements and Culture (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press): 217–46.
Kahan, Dan. 2010. ‘Fixing the Communications Failure’, Nature 463.7279: 296–97. https://doi.org/10.1038/463296a
Kahan, Dan, Donald Braman, John Gastil, Paul Slovic, and C. K. Mertz. 2007. ‘Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition’, Journal of Empirical Legal Studies 4.3: 465–505. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1740-1461.2007.00097.x
Kearns, Laurel. 2013. ‘Green Evangelicals’ in Brian Steensland and Philip Goff (eds.) The New Evangelical Social Engagement (New York: Oxford University Press): 157–73.
———. 2012. ‘Religious Climate Activism in the United States’ in Dieter Gerten and Sigurd Bergmann (eds.) Religion in Environmental and Climate Change (London: Continuum): 132–51.
———. 2007a. ‘Cooking the Truth: Faith, the Market, and the Science of Global Warming’ in Laurel Kearns and Catherine Keller (eds.) Eco-Spirit: Religion, Philosophy and the Earth (New York: Fordham University Press): 97–124.
———. 2007b. ‘Religion and Ecology’ in Peter Beyer and Lori Beaman (eds.) Religion, Globalization, and Culture (Boston: Brill Publishing): 305–34.
———. 1997. ‘Noah’s Ark Goes to Washington’, Social Compass 44: 349–66. https://doi.org/10.1177/003776897044003004
Lamb, William, Giulio Mattioli, Sebastian Levi, Timmons Roberts, Stuart Capstick, Felix Creutzig, Jan Minx, Finn Müller-Hansen, Trevor Culhane, and Julia Steinberger. 2020. ‘Discourses of Climate Delay’, Global Sustainability 3.17: 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1017/sus.2020.13
Machado, Marcos. 2018. ‘“Direitos” de Rios e Bichos’. 18 June. https://ipco.org.br/direitos-de-rios-e-bichos/#.XLJ23OhKinV
Maffei, Bertolina. 2013. ‘Pensamentos de Um Príncipe’, Jornal Alfredo Wagner 4.43: 6.
Miguel, Jean Carlos H. 2022. ‘A “Meada” do Negacionismo Climático e o Impedimento da Governamentalização Ambiental no Brasil’, Sociedade e Estado 37.1: 293–315. https://doi.org/10.1590/s0102-6992-202237010013
Monteiro, Tânia. 2019. ‘Grupo Conservador Ligado à Igreja Católica ataca Sínodo’, Estado de S. Paulo. 29 August. https://politica.estadao.com.br/noticias/geral,grupo-conservador-ligado-a-igreja-catolica-ataca-sinodo,70002985465
Nisbet, Matthew. 2009. ‘Communicating Climate Change: Why Frames Matter to Public Engagement’, Environment 51.2: 12–23. https://doi.org/10.3200/ENVT.51.2.12-23
Oliveira, Plinio Corrêa. 1992. ‘Eco 92: Aparência e Realidade Profunda’, Revista Catolicismo 501.
Oreskes, Naomi. 2011. Merchants of Doubt (New York: Bloomsbury Press).
Orléans-Braganza, Bertrand. 2012. Psicose Ambientalista: os Bastidores do Ecoterrorismo para Implantar uma Religião Ecológica, Igualitária e Anticristã (São Paulo: IPCO).
Orwell, George. 2000 [1949]. Nineteen Eighty-Four (London: Penguin Books).
Phillips, Tom. 2019. ‘Bolsonaro Targets the Catholic Church Over its “Leftist Agenda” on the Amazon’, The Guardian. 23 September. https://www.theguardian.com
Pinheiro, Mirian. 2013. ‘Predador ou Jardineiro?’, Estado de Minas. 7 April. http://imagem.camara.gov.br/Imagem/d/pdf/DCD11ABR2013.pdf
Pires, Carlo. 2019. ‘The Trump Ally Who is Allowing the Amazon to Burn’, The New Yorker. 28 August. https://www.newyorker.com
Pogue, Neall. 2023. The Nature of the Religious Right: the Struggle Between Conservative Evangelicals and the Environmental Movement (Ithaca: Cornell University Press).
Power, Margaret. 2010. ‘Transnational, Conservative, Catholic, and Anti-Communist: Tradition, Family, and Property (TFP)’ in M. Durham and M. Power (eds.) New Perspectives on the Transnational Right (New York: Palgrave MacMillan): 85–106.
Rajão, Raoni, Antonio Nobre, Evandro Cunha, Tiago Duarte, Camilla Marcolino, Britaldo Soares-Filho, Gerd Sparovek, Ricardo Rodrigues, Carlos Valera, Mercedes Bustamante, Carlos Nobre, and Letícia de Lima. 2022. ‘The Risk of Fake Controversies for Brazilian Environmental Policies’, Biological Conservation 266: 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2021.109447
Reisdorf, Paula. 2022. ‘Alimentando o Negacionismo’, The Intercept. 11 July. https://theintercept.com/2022/07/11/comite-jbs-financia-negacionistas-mudanca-climatica/
Revista Catolicismo. 2017. ‘Ecologistas Radicais Oferecem Farinha de… Baratas!’, Revista Catolicismo 796.
———. 2010. ‘Fim do Direito de Propriedade e da Livre Iniciativa?’, Revista Catolicismo 710.
Ronan, Marisa. 2017. ‘Religion and the Environment: Twenty-First Century American Evangelicalism and the Anthropocene’, Humanities 6.92: 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3390/h6040092
Santos, Renan William. 2022. ‘Negacionismo Climático Cristão’ [‘Christian Climate Denialism’]. Paper presented at the 46th ANPOCS Annual Meeting, Campinas. 17 October. https://www.encontro2022.anpocs.com/arquivo/downloadpublic?q=YToyOntzOjY6InBhcmFtcyI7czozNToiYToxOntzOjEwOiJJRF9BUlFVSVZPIjtzOjQ6Ijk3NjgiO30iO3M6MToiaCI7czozMjoiMDc1MDY4OTZiZjUzNmEyODE4ZjdmMGI2NDQxYmE4M2EiO30%3D
———. 2020. ‘Entre o “Cuidado da Casa Comum” e a “Psicose Ambientalista”: Disputas em Torno da Ecoteologia Católica no Brasil’ [‘Between “Care of the Common House” and “Environmental Psychosis”: Disputes Around Catholic Ecotheology in Brazil’], Revista Brasileira de Sociologia 8.20: 78–101. https://rbs.sbsociologia.com.br/index.php/rbs/article/view/rbs.666. https://doi.org/10.20336/rbs.666
———. 2019. ‘Direitos da Natureza e Deveres Religiosos: Tensões Entre a Ecologia Católica e Movimentos Ambientalistas Seculares’ [‘The Rights of Nature and the Commandments About Creation: Tensions Between Catholic Ecology and Secular Environmental Movements’], Religião & Sociedade 39.2: 78–99. https://doi.org/10.1590/0100-85872019v39n2cap03
Santos, Renan William, and Camila Crumo. 2019. ‘Quando a Religião sobe ao palco’, Ciências sociais Unisinos 55.2: 204–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.4013/csu.2019.55.2.06
Snow, David A., E. Burke Rochford, Steven K. Worden, and Robert D. Benford. 1986. ‘Frame Alignment Processes, Micromobilization, and Movement Participation’, American Sociological Review 51.4: 464–81. https://doi.org/10.2307/2095581
Swimme, Brian. 1984. The Universe is a Green Dragon (Rochester: Bear & Company).
Swimme, Brian, and Thomas Berry. 1994. The Universe Story (New York: HarperCollins).
Taylor, Bron. 2010. Dark Green Religion: Nature Spirituality and the Planetary Future (Berkeley: University of California Press).
———. 2013. ‘Truth and Fiction in Avatar’s Cosmogony and Nature Religion’ in B. Taylor (ed.) Avatar and Nature Spirituality (Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier University Press): 301–36.
Ureta, José. 2019. ‘Promoção da Agenda “Verde” no Pontificado do Papa Francisco’. https://ipco.org.br/promocao-da-agenda-verde-no-pontificado-do-papa-francisco-i
Veldman, Robin. 2019. The Gospel of Climate Skepticism: Why Evangelical Christians Oppose Action on Climate Change (Oakland: University of California Press).
Veldman, Robin, Dara Wald, Sarah Mills, and David Peterson. 2020. ‘Who are American Evangelical Protestants and Why do They Matter for US Climate Policy’, WIREs Climate Change e693. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.693
Vincentnathan, Lynn, Georg Vincentnathan, and Nicholas Smith. 2016. ‘Catholics and Climate Change Skepticism’, Worldviews: Global Religions, Culture, and Ecology 20.2: 125–49. https://doi.org/10.1163/15685357-02002005
Wanliss, James. 2010. Resisting the Green Dragon: Dominion, not Death (Burke: Cornwall Alliance).
Weber, Max. 1946a. ‘Politics as a Vocation’ in H. Gerth and C. W. Mills (eds.) From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (New York: Oxford University Press): 77–128.
———. 1946b. ‘Science as a Vocation’ in Hans Gerth and Mills C. Wright (eds.) From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (New York: Oxford University Press): 129–56.
Wilkinson, Katharine. 2012. Between God & Green: How Evangelicals Are Cultivating a Middle Ground on Climate Change (New York: Oxford University Press).
