Homo anxius, or How Fear and Anxiety Conquered the Social World
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1558/jch.19349Keywords:
Cognitive Historiography, History of Religions, Neurosociology, Religious Evolution and the Axial Age, The Emergence and Evolution of ReligionAbstract
The article offers an extended review, counterpointed by a critical commentary, of two recent and outstanding volumes, Turner et al.’s The Emergence and Evolution of Religion (2018) and Sanderson’s Religious Evolution and the Axial Age (2018). Both books are eminently interdisciplinary in their scope: the first displays a distinctive deep-historical and neurosociological attention to the evolution of negative emotions and inter-group competition, while the latter focuses on the contribution of world transcendent religions to help human beings cope with new and challenging biosocial conditions derived from ultrasociality. While the two volumes gain unprecedented multidisciplinary width, they also tend to lose intra-disciplinary depth. However, and for all their differences, they both represent the vanguard of a renewed qualitative, scientific, and interdisciplinary study of the history of religion(s) through cognitive historiography. This contribution presents the main theses of both books, highlights their strengths, and provides a comprehensive discussion of their epistemological and methodological shortcomings.
References
Adinolfi, F. 2015. “Gesù sciamano e dintorni: un filone alternative della ricerca su Gesù da Vermes a Craffert.” In Sciamanesimo e sciamanesimi. Un problema storiografico, eds. L. Arcari and A. Saggioro,118–236. Rome: Nuova Cultura.
Adriaens, P. R. and A. De Block, eds. 2011. Maladapting Minds: Philosophy, Psychiatry, and Evolutionary Theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Alles, G. D. 2009. “Religious Economies and Rational Choice: On Rodney Stark and Roger Finke, Acts of Faith (2000)”. In Contemporary Theories of Religion: A Critical Companion, ed. M. Stausberg, 83–98. London and New York: Routledge.
Ambasciano, L. 2014. Sciamanesimo senza sciamanesimo. Le radici intellettuali del modello sciamanico di Mircea Eliade: evoluzionismo, psicoanalisi, te(le)ologia. Rome: Nuova Cultura.
Ambasciano, L. 2015. “Mapping Pluto’s Republic: Cognitive and Epistemological Reflections on Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem.” Journal for the Cognitive Science of Religion 3(2): 183–205. https://doi.org/10.1558/jcsr.27091
Ambasciano, L. 2016a. “Achilles’ Historiographical Heel, or the Infelicitous Predominance of Experimental Presentism in Ara Norenzayan’s Big Gods.” Studi e Materiali di Storia delle Religioni 82(2): 1045–68.
Ambasciano, L. 2016b. “Mind the (Unbridgeable) Gaps: A Cautionary Tale About Pseudoscientific Distortions and Scientific Misconceptions in the Study of Religion.” Method & Theory in the Study of Religion 28(2): 141–225. https://doi.org/10.1163/15700682-12341372
Ambasciano, L. 2017a. “What Is Cognitive Historiography, Anyway? Method, Theory, and a Cross-disciplinary Decalogue.” Journal of Cognitive Historiography 4(2): 136–50. https://doi.org/10.1558/jch.38759
Ambasciano, L. 2017b. “Exiting the Motel of the Mysteries? How Historiographical Floccinaucinihilipilification Is Affecting CSR 2.0.” In Religion Explained? The Cognitive Science of Religion After Twenty-Five Years, eds. L. H. Martin and D. Wiebe, 107–22. London and New York: Bloomsbury.
Ambasciano, L. 2018. “Comparative Religion as a Life Science: William E. Paden’s Neo-Plinian ‘New Naturalism’”. Method & Theory in the Study of Religion 30(2): 141–49. https://doi.org/10.1163/15700682-12341414
Ambasciano, L. 2019. An Unnatural History of Religions: Academia, Post-Truth and the Quest for Scientific Knowledge. London: Bloomsbury.
Ambasciano, L. forthcoming. “Shamanism Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow: Notes on Sidky’s The Origins of Shamanism, Spirit Beliefs, and Religiosity (2017) and Botta’s Dagli sciamani allo sciamanesimo (2018)”. Journal of Cognitive Historiography.
Ambasciano, L. and T. J. Coleman III. 2019. “History as a Canceled Problem? Hilbert Lists, du Bois-Reymond’s Enigmas, and the Scientific Study of Religion.” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 87(2): 366–400. https://doi.org/10.1093/jaarel/lfz001
Ambasciano, L. and N. Roubekas. Forthcoming. “Big Data, Cognitive Biases, Horror Tropes, and Think Tanks: The Future of Historiography Between Bold Cross-disciplinary Experiments and Scientific Reductionism.” Journal of Cognitive Historiography 5(1–2).
Banerjee, N., T. Polushina, F. Bettella, S. Giddaluru, V. M. Steen, O. A. Andreassen and S. Le Hellard. 2018. “Recently Evolved Human-specific Methylated Regions Are Enriched in Schizophrenia Signals.” BMC Evolutionary Biology 18(63). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12862-018-1177-2
Beck, N. 2009. “Spencer, Herbert.” In Evolution: The First Four Billion Years, eds. M. Ruse and J. Travis, 862–865. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Bellah, R. N. 2011. Religion in Human Evolution: From the Paleolithic to the Axial Age. Cambridge, MA and London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
Bolhuis, J. J., G. R. Brown, R. Richardson and K. N. Laland. 2011. “Darwin in Mind: New Opportunities for Evolutionary Psychology.” PLoS Biology 9(7): e1001109. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001109
Bradbury, S. 1994. “Constantine and the Problem of Anti-pagan Legislation in the Fourth Century.” Classical Philology 89(2): 120–139. Article Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/270658
Bruce, S. 2008. “The Social Limits on Religious Markets.” In Salvation goods and religious markets: Theory and applications, ed. J. Stolz, 81–98. Bern: Peter Lang.
Bulbulia, J. and E. Slingerland. 2012. “Religious Studies as a Life Science.” Numen 59(5–6): 564–613. https://doi.org/10.1163/15685276-12341240
Casini, P. 2012. “Evolutionary Theory and Philosophical Darwinism.” In The Theory of Evolution and Its Impact, ed. A. Fasolo, 53–68. Milan: Springer.
Christian, D. 2018. Origin Story: A Big History of Everything. London: Penguin.
Clasen, M. 2017. Why Horror Seduces. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Costa, D. L., N. Yetter and H. DeSomer. 2018. “Intergenerational Transmission of Paternal Trauma Among US Civil War ex-POWs.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115(44): 11215–220. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1803630115
Costandi, M. 2016. Neuroplasticity. Cambridge, MA and London: The MIT Press.
Crow, T. J. 2000. “Schizophrenia as the Price that Homo sapiens Pays for Language: A Resolution of the Central Paradox in the origin of the species.” Brain Research Reviews 31(2–3): 118–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-0173(99)00029-6
Currie, A. 2016. “Ethnographic Analogy, the Comparative Method, and Archaeological Special Pleading.” Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A 55: 84–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsa.2015.08.010
Darwin, C. R. 1871. The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex. 2 vols. London: John Murray.
Dawkins, R. 1999 [1982]. The Extended Phenotype: The Long Reach of the Gene. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Dawkins, R. 2013. An Appetite for Wonder: The Making of a Scientist. A Memoir. London: Bantam Press.
Dawkins, R. 2016 [1976]. The Selfish Gene. 40th Anniversary Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Diamond, J. 2005. Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed. New York: Viking Press.
Donald, M. 1991. Origins of the Modern Mind: Three Stages in the Evolution of Culture and Cognition. Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard University Press.
DuBois, T. A. 2009. An Introduction to Shamanism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Eldredge, N., T. Pievani, E. Serrelli and I. Tëmkin. eds. 2016. Evolutionary Theory: A Hierarchical Perspective. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press.
Fawbert, D. 2019. “‘Eco-anxiety’: How to Spot It and What to Do about It.” BBC, 27 March. https://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcthree/article/b2e7ee32-ad28-4ec4-89aa-a8b8c98f95a5 [accessed 30 March 2020].
Felice, R. and K. D. Angielczyk. 2014. “Was Ophiacodon (Synapsida, Eupelycosauria) a Swimmer? A Test Using Vertebral Dimensions.” In The Early Evolutionary History of Synapsida, eds. C. Krammerer, K. D. Angielczyk and J. Fröbisch, 25–51. Heidelberg and New York: Springer.
Fukuyama, F. 1992. The End of History and The Last Man. New York: Free Press.
Galen, L. 2017. “Which Functions Assumed to Be Religious and Spiritual in Nature Are Ultimately Attributable or Reducible to Purely Secular Mechanisms?” Religion, Brain & Behavior 7(4): 293–95. https://doi.org/10.1080/2153599X.2016.1249919
Gee, H. 2000. Deep Time: Cladistics, the Revolution in Evolution. London: Fourth Estate.
Geertz, A. W. 2009. “When Cognitive Scientists Become Religious, Science Is in Trouble: On Neurotheology From a Philosophy of Science Perspective.” Religion 39(4): 319–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.religion.2009.08.001
Geertz, A. W. 2012. “New Atheistic Approaches in the Cognitive Science of Religion: On Daniel Dennett, Breaking the Spell (2006) and Richard Dawkins, The God Delusion (2006).” In Contemporary Theories of Religion: A Critical Companion, ed. M. Stausberg, 264–282. London and New York: Routledge.
Giddens, A. 1990. The Consequences of Modernity. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Girotto, V., T. Pievani and G. Vallortigara. 2016. “Supernatural Beliefs: Adaptations for Social Life or By-Products of Cognitive Adaptations?” Behavior 151(2/3): 385–402. https://doi.org/10.1163/1568539X-00003154
Glick, T. F. 2008. “The Anthropology of Race Across the Darwinian Revolution.” In A New History of Anthropology, ed. H. Kuklick, 225–241. Malden, MA and Oxford: Blackwell.
Gottschall, J. 2012. The Storytelling Animal: How Stories Make Us Human. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
Gould, S. J. 1986. “Evolution and the Triumph of Homology, or Why History Matters.” American Scientist 74(1): 60–69. Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/27853941
Gould, S. J. 1991a. “Exaptation: A Crucial Tool for an Evolutionary Psychology.” Journal of Social Issues 47(3): 43–65. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1991.tb01822
Gould, S. J. 1991b [1987]. Time’s Arrow, Time’s Cycle: Myth and Metaphor in the Discovery of Geological Time. London: Penguin.
Hennessy, A. 1992. “The Nature of the Conquest and the Conquistadors.” Proceedings of the British Academy 81:5–36.
Hinzen, W. and J. Rosselló. 2015. “The Linguistics of Schizophrenia: Thought Disturbance as Language Pathology Across Positive Symptoms.” Frontiers in Psychology 6(971). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00971
Holmes, J. 2012. John Bowlby and Attachment Theory. Second Edition. London and New York: Routledge.
Hope, A. L. B. and C. R. Jones. 2014. “The Impact of Religious Faith on Attitudes to Environmental Issues and Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) Technologies: A Mixed Methods Study.” Technology in Society 38: 48–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2014.02.003
Ilardo, M. A., I. Moltke, T. S. Korneliussen, J. Cheng, A. J. Stern, F. Racimo, P. de Barros Damgaard, M. Sikora, A. Seguin-Orlando, S. Rasmussen I. C. L. van den Munckhof, R. ter Horst, L. A. B. Joosten, M. G. Netea, S. Salingkat, R. Nielsen and E. Willerslev. 2019. “Physiological and Genetic Adaptations to Diving in Sea Nomads.” Cell 173: 569–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2018.03.054
IPBES (Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services). 2019. “Nature’s Dangerous Decline ‘Unprecedented’; Species Extinction Rates ‘Accelerating’.” IPBES Science and Policy for People and Nature. https://www.ipbes.net/news/Media-Release-Global-Assessment [accessed 30 March 2020].
Jacob, F. 1977. “Evolution and Tinkering.” Science 196(4295): 1161–66. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.860134
Jones, L. 1988. “Apocalyptic Eschatology in the Nuclear Arms Race.” Transformation 5(1): 25–27. Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/43052207.
Jong, J. and J. Halberstadt (2016). Death Anxiety and Religious Beliefs: An Existential Psychology of Religion. New and London: Bloomsbury.
Kahneman, D. 2011. Thinking, Fast and Slow. London: Penguin.
Kemp, T. S. 2005. The Origin and Evolution of Mammals. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Kennerley, H., J. Kirk and D. Westbrook. 2017. An Introduction to Cognitive Behaviour Therapy: Skills & Applications. Los Angeles and London: SAGE.
Kirkpatrick, L. A. 2005. Attachment, Evolution, and the Psychology of Religion. New York: Guilford Press.
Kolbert, E. 2016. The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History. London and New York: Bloomsbury.
Kong, A., M. L. Frigge, G. Thorleifsson, H. Stefansson, A. I. Young, F. Zink, G. A. Jonsdottir, A. Okbay, P. Sulem, G. Masson, D. F. Gudbjartsson, A. Helgason, G. Bjornsdottir, U. Thorsteinsdottir and K. Stefansson. 2017. “Selection against Variants in the Genome Associated with Educational Attainment.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 114(5): E727–E732. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1612113114
Lane, M. 2014. Greek and Roman Political Ideas. London: Penguin.
Laurin, M. and V. Buffrénil. 2016. “Microstructural Features of the Femur in Early Ophiacodontids: A Reappraisal of Ancestral Habitat Use and Lifestyle of Amniotes.” Comptes Rendus Palevol General Palaeontology, Systematic and Evolution (Palaeoecology) 15(1–2): 115–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crpv.2015.01.001
Leroi, A. M. 2005 [2003]. Mutants: On the Form, Varieties and Errors of the Human Body. London and New York: HarperPerennial.
Lind, M. I. and F. Spagopoulou. 2018. “Evolutionary Consequences of Epigenetic Inheritance.” Heredity 121: 205–209. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41437-018-0113-y
Martin, B. 2017. “Massive Genetic Study Shows How Humans Are Evolving.” Nature, 6 Sept. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature.2017.22565
Martin, L. H. 2008. “Daniel Dennett’s Breaking the Spell: An Unapologetic Apology.” Method & Theory in the Study of Religion 20(1): 61–66. https://doi.org/10.1163/157006808X260223
Martin, P. S. 2005. Twilight of the Mammoths: Ice Age Extinctions and the Rewilding of America. Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press.
Matsuzawa, T. 2013. “Evolution of the Brain and Social Behavior in Chimpanzees.” Current Opinion in Neurobiology 23(3): 443–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2013.01.012
Mayr, E. 1991. One Long Argument: Charles Darwin and the Genesis of Modern Evolutionary Thought. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
McCauley, R. N. 2020. “Recent Trends in the Cognitive Science of Religion: Neuroscience, Religious Experience, and the Confluence of Cognitive and Evolutionary Research.” Zygon: Journal of Religion & Science 55(1): 97–124. https://doi.org/10.1111/zygo.12573
McKie, R. 2019. “Mutating Genes Feed Persistence of Schizophrenia.” The Observer, 16 November, p. 22.
Mercier, H. and D. Sperber (2017). The Enigma of Reason: A New Theory of Human Understanding. Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard University Press.
Miles, J. 2013. Review essay on Bellah, R. N. 2011. Religion in Human Evolution: From the Paleolithic to the Axial Age. Cambridge, MA and London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press; Bellah, R. N. and H. Joas. eds. 2012. The Axial Age and its Consequences. Cambridge, MA and London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Journal of the American Academy of Religion 81(3): 852–64. https://doi.org/10.1093/jaarel/lft045
Mitteroecker, P., S. M. Huttegger, B. Fischer and M. Pavlicev. 2016. “Cliff-edge Model of Obstetric Selection in Humans.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113(51): 14680–85. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1612410113
Montalva, N., K. Adhikari, A. Liebert, J. Mendoza-Revilla, S. V. Flores, R. Mace and D. M. Swallow. 2019. “Adaptation to Milking Agropastoralism in Chilean Goat Herders and Nutritional Benefit of Lactase Persistence.” Annals of Human Genetics 83(1): 11–22. https://doi.org/10.1111/ahg.12277
Morris, D. 1978 [1977]. Manwatching. London: Jonathan Cape.
Morris, D. 2005 [1967]. The Naked Ape. London: Vintage.
Naumann, R. K., J. M. Ondracek, S. Reiter, M. Shein-Idelson, M. A. Tosches, T. M. Yamawaki and G. Laurent. 2015. “The Reptilian Brain.” Current Biology 25(8): R317–R321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.02.049
Nesse, R. M. 2019. Good Reasons for Bad Feelings: Insights from the Frontier of Evolutionary Psychiatry. London: Penguin.
Nixey, C. 2017. The Darkening Age: The Christian Destruction of the Classical World. London: MacMillan.
Norris, P. and R. Ingleheart. 2011. Sacred and Secular: Religion and Politics Worldwide. Second Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
O’Rourke, M., S. Crowley and C. Gonnerman. 2016. “On the Nature of Cross-disciplinary Integration: A Philosophical Framework.” Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 56: 62–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsc.2015.10.003
Olkowicz, S., M. Kocourek, R. K. Lucan, M. Porteš, W. Tecumseh Fitch, S. Herculano-Houzeland and P. Nemec. 2016. “Birds Have Primate-Like Numbers of Neurons in the Forebrain.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113(26): 7255–60. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1517131113
Parravicini, A. and T. Pievani. 2016. “Multi-Level Human Evolution: Ecological Patterns in Hominin Phylogeny.” Journal of Anthropological Sciences 94: 167–82. http://doi.org/10.4436/jass.94026
Paumier Jones, M. 1996. “The Storytelling Animal.” The Georgia Review 50(4): 649–666. Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/41401285
Petersen, A. K. 2017. “The Tangled Cultural History of the Axial Age: A Review of Jan Assman’s Achsenzeit.” Journal of Cognitive Historiography 4(2): 257–71. https://doi.org/10.1558/jch.38766
Pievani, T. and E. Serrelli. 2013. “Bucket Thinking: The Future Framework for Evolutionary Explanation.” Contrastes. Revista Internacional de Filosofía Suplemento 18: 389–405. https://doi.org/10.24310/Contrastescontrastes.v0i0.1180
Pievani, T. 2011. “An Evolving Research Programme: The Structure of Evolutionary Theory from a Lakatosian Perspective.” In The Theory of Evolution and its Impact, ed. A. Fasolo, 211–28. Milan: Springer.
Pievani, T. 2018. “Earth’s Six Mass Extinction Event.” In Encyclopedia of the Anthropocene. Volume 2: Climate Change, D. A. Della Sala and M. I. Goldstein (eds. in Chief), 259–64. Oxford and Waltham, MA: Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-409548-9.09216-2
Pigliucci, M. and G. B. Müller. eds. 2010. Evolution, the Extended Synthesis. Cambridge, MA and London: The MIT Press.
Pinker, S. 2010. “The Cognitive Niche: Coevolution of Intelligence, Sociality, And Language.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107(Suppl. 2): 8993–99. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0914630107
Purzycki, B. G. and R. Sosis. 2013. “The Extended Religious Phenotype and the Adaptive Coupling of Ritual and Belief.” Israel Journal of Ecology & Evolution 59(2): 99–108. https://doi.org/10.1080/15659801.2013.825433
Ramo-Fernández, L., A. Schneider, S. Wilker and I.-T. Kolassa. 2015. “Epigenetic Alterations Associated with War Trauma and Childhood Maltreatment.” Behavioral Sciences & the Law 33(5): 701–21. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.2200
Reynolds, A. W., J. Mata-Míguez, A. Miró-Herrans, M. Briggs-Cloud, A. Sylestine, F. Barajas-Olmos, H. Garcia-Ortiz, M. Rzhetskaya, L. Orozco, J. A. Raff, M. G. Hayes and D. A. Bolnick. 2019. “Comparing Signals of Natural Selection Between Three Indigenous North American Populations.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116(19): 9312–17. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1819467116
Richards, R. J. 2013. Was Hitler a Darwinian? Disputed Questions in the History of Evolutionary Theory. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press.
Richerson, P. J. and L. Newson. 2009. “Is Religion Adaptive? Yes, No, Neutral. But Mostly We Don’t Know.” In The Believing Primate: Scientific, Philosophical, and Theological Reflections on the Origin of Religion, eds. J. Schloss & M. J. Murray, 100–17. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.
Robertson, D. 2010. The Philosophy of Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy (CBT): Stoic Philosophy as Rational and Cognitive Psychotherapy. London: Karnac.
Rovelli, C. 2011. The First Scientist: Anaximander and His Legacy. Yardley, PA: Westholme Publishing.
Ruse, M. 2018. “Does Life Have Meaning, or Is It Self-Deception at Best and Terrifyingly Absurd at Worst?” The New York Academy of Sciences 1432: 66–71. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.13878
Russell, E. 2011. Evolutionary History: Uniting History and Biology to Understand Life on Earth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Sanderson, S. K. 2018. Religious Evolution and the Axial Age: From Shamans to Priests to Prophets. London and New York: Bloomsbury.
Scalise Sugiyama, M. 2011. “The Forager Oral Tradition and The Evolution of Prolonged Juvenility.” Frontiers in Psychology 2(133). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00133
Scott, J. C. 2017. Against the Grain: A Deep History of The Earliest States. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.
Sela, Y., T. K. Shackelford and J. R. Liddle. 2015. “When Religion Makes It Worse: Religiously Motivated Violence as a Sexual Selection Weapon.” In The Attraction of Religion: A New Evolutionary Psychology of Religion, eds. D. J. Slone and J. A. Van Slyke, 111–32. London and New York: Bloomsbury.
Sepkoski, D. 2019. “The Unfinished Synthesis? Paleontology and Evolutionary Biology in the 20th Century.” Journal of the History of Biology 52: 687–703. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10739-018-9537-8
Shryock, A. and D. L. Smail. eds. 2011. Deep History: The Architecture of Past and Present. Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press.
Simpson, G. G. 1955 [1951]. The Meaning of Evolution: A Special and Abridged Edition. New York: Mentor Books.
Skjoldli, J. 2015. “The Backwash of Norenzayan’s Big Gods: A Post-review Essay.” Numen 62(5–6): 639–60. https://doi.org/10.1163/15685276-12341397
Slone, D. J. 2013. “The Opium or the Aphrodisiac of the People? Darwinizing Marx on Religion.” In Mental Culture: Classical Social Theory and the Cognitive Science of Religion, eds. D. Xygalatas and W. W. McCorkle Jr, 52–65. London and New York: Routledge.
Smail, D. L. 2008. On Deep History and the Brain. Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press.
Smart, N. 1977 [1969]. The Religious Experience of Mankind. Glasgow: Collins.
Smart, N. 1993 [1989]. The World’s Religions: Old Traditions and Modern Transformations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Smith, D., P. Schlaepfer, K. Major, M. Dyble, A. E. Page, J. Thompson, N. Chaudhary, G. D. Salali, R. Mace, L. Astete, M. Ngales, L. Vinicius and A. Bamberg Migliano. 2017. “Cooperation and the Evolution of Hunter-Gatherer Storytelling.” Nature Communications 8(1853). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-017-02036-8
Smith, J. Z. 1993. Map Is Not Territory. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Smith, W. R. 1927 [1889]. Lectures on The Religion of the Semites: The Fundamental Institutions. Third Edition with an Introduction and Additional Notes by S. A. Cook. New York: The Macmillan Company, London: A. V. C. Buck Ltd.
Sonnenburg, E. D. and J. L. Sonnenburg. 2019. “The Ancestral and Industrialized Gut Microbiota and Implications for Human Health.” Nature Reviews Microbiology 17(6): 383–90. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41579-019-0191-8
Sørensen, J. 2011. “Past Minds: Present Historiography and Cognitive Science.” In Past Minds: Studies in Cognitive Historiography, eds. L. H. Martin and J. Sørensen, 179–96. London and New York: Routledge.
Srinivasana, S., F. Bettella, M. Mattingsdal, Y. Wang, A. Witoelar, A. J. Schork, W. K. Thompson, V. Zuber, Schizophrenia Working Group of the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium, The International Headache Genetics Consortium, B. S. Winsvold, J.-A. Zwart, D. A. Collier, R. S. Desikan, I. Melle, T. Werge, A. M. Dale, S. Djurovic and O. A. Andreassen. 2016. “Genetic Markers of Human Evolution Are Enriched in Schizophrenia.” Biological Psychiatry 80(4): 284–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.10.009
Stark, R. and W. S. Bainbridge. 1987. A Theory of Religion. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.
Sterelny, K. 2006. “The Perverse Primate.” In Richard Dawkins: How a Scientist Changed the Way We Think, eds. A. Grafen and M. Ridley, 213–23.Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Stock, J. T. 2008. “Are Humans Still Evolving?” EMBO Reports (Special Issue) 9: 51–54. https://doi.org/10.1038/embor.2008.63
Thunberg, G. 2019. No One Is Too Small to Make a Difference. London: Penguin.
Tobi, E. W., R. C. Slieker, R. Luijk, K. F. Dekkers, A. D. Stein, K. M. Xu, Biobank-based Integrative Omics Studies Consortium, P. E. Slagboom, E. W. van Zwet, L. H. Lumey and B. T. Heijmans. 2018. “DNA Methylation as a Mediator of the Association Between Prenatal Adversity and Risk Factors for Metabolic Disease in Adulthood.” Science Advances 4(1): eaao4364. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aao4364
Tort, P. 2008. L’Effet Darwin. Sélection naturelle et naissance de la civilization. Paris: Seuil.
Trivers, R. 2011. Deceit and Self-Deception: Fooling Yourself the Better o Fool Others. London: Allen Lane.
Turner, J. H. 2016. “The Problem with Too Much Fidelity to the Modern Synthesis When Explaining the Origins and Evolution of the Social Universe.” Journal for the Cognitive Science of Religion 4(1): 81–90. https://doi.org/10.1558/jcsr.35730
Turner, J. H., A. Maryanski, A. K. Petersen and A. W. Geertz. 2018. The Emergence and Evolution of Religion by Means of Natural Selection. London and New York: Routledge.
van Eyghen, H., R. Peels and G. Van den Brink. eds. 2018. New Developments in the Cognitive Science of Religion: The Rationality of Religious Belief. Cham: Springer.
Warwick, C., P. Arena, S. Lindley, M. Jessop and C. Steedman. 2013. “Assessing Reptile Welfare Using Behavioural Criteria.” In Practice 35: 123–31. https://doi.org/10.1136/inp.f1197
White, C. 2018. “What Does the Cognitive Science of Religion Explain?” In New Developments in the Cognitive Science of Religion: The Rationality of Religious Beliefs, eds. H. van Eyghen and G. van der Brink, 35–50. Cham: Springer.
Wiebe, D. 2009. “Religious Biases in Funding Religious Studies Research?” Religio: revue pro religionistiku 17(2): 125–40. Stable URL: http://hdl.handle.net/11222.digilib/125290
Wrangham, R. 2019. The Goodness Paradox: How Evolution Made Us Both More and Less Violent. London: Profile.
Wunn, I. 2003. “The Evolution of Religions.” Numen 50(4): 387–415. https://doi.org/10.1163/156852703322446660
