Experiencing the Cosmos
Seneca’s Silent Prayer from a Cognitive Perspective
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1558/jch.37225Keywords:
Seneca, religious experience, silent prayer, Roman religion, Stoic philosophyAbstract
This article is a first attempt to disclose the experiential quality of those silent prayers which Seneca suggests are most appropriate to his readers. Previous studies highlight these silent prayers as being solely ethical and, therefore, entirely unemotional, but a close and rigorous reading of Seneca’s references to them through the lens of a cognitive approach shows these prayers are actually considered as ecstatic practices, indeed ecstatic strategies that – in combination with Seneca’s philosophical framework – facilitate an experience of the divine, even an experience of the contemplation of the divine.
References
Albrecht, M. 2004. Wort und Wandlung. Senecas Lebenskunst. Leiden: Brill.
Alvar, A., ed. 2019. Sensorium: Sensory Perceptions in Roman Polytheism. Leiden: Brill.
Annas, J. 1993. The Morality of Happiness. Oxford: UP.
Armisen-Marchetti. 1986. “Imagination et méditation chez Sénèque: L’example de la praemeditatio.” REL 64: 185–199.
Armisen-Marchetti, M. 1989. Sapientiae facies: étude sur les images de Sénèque. Paris: Les Belles Lettres.
Armisen-Marchetti, M. 1990. “L’expression du sacré chez Sénèque.” Revue d’etudes antiques 36: 89–99.
Atran, S. 2002. ln Gods we Trust: The Evolutionary Landscape of Religion. Oxford: UP.
Azari, N.P. et al. 2005. “Religious Experience and Emotion. Evidence for Distinctive Cognitive Neural Patterns.” The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion 75: 263–281.
Barsalou, L.W. et al. 2003. “Social Embodiment.” The Psychology of Learning and Motivation. Advances in Research and Theory 43: 43–92.
Barsalou, L.W. et al. 2005. “Embodiment in Religious Knowledge.” Journal of Cognition and Culture 5: 14–57.
Bartsch, S. 2006. The Mirror of the Self: Sexuality, Self-Knowledge, and the Gaze in the Early Roman Empire. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
Bartsch, S. 2015. “Senecan Selves.” In The Cambridge Companion to Seneca, eds. S. Bartsch and A. Schiesaro, 187–198. Cambridge: UP.
Bitton-Ashkelony, B. 2012. “More Interior than the Lips and the Tongue: John of Apamea and Silent Prayer in Late Antiquity.” Journal of Early Christian Studies 20: 303-331.
Boyer, P. 2001. Religion Explained: The Evolutionary Origins of Religious Thought. London: Basic Books.
Bremmer, J. 1984. “Greek Maenadism Reconsidered.” ZPE 55: 267–286.
Bremmer, Jan. 2008. Greek Religion and Culture, the Bible and the Ancient Near East. Jerusalem Studies in Religion and Culture 8. Leiden: Brill.
Calabro, D.M. 2014. Ritual Gestures of Lifting, Extending, and Clasping the Hand(s) in Northwest Semitic Literature and Iconography. Diss. Chicago.
Cancik-Lindemaier, H. 2006. “Senecas Konstruktion des Sapiens: Zur Sakralisierung der Rolle des Weisen im 1. Jh. n.Chr.” In Von Atheismus bis Zensur: Römische Lektüren in kulturwissenschaftlicher Absicht, eds. H. Harich-Schwarzbauer and B. von Reibnitz, 305–324. Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann.
Carter, R. 2002. Exploring Consciousness. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
Chalupa, A. 2014. “Pythiai and Inspired Divination in the Delphic Oracle: Can Cognitive Sciences Provide Us with an Access to ‘Dead Minds’?” Journal of Cognitive Historiography 1: 24-51.
Chaniotis, A. 2010. “The Dynamics of Ritual Norms in Greek Cult.” In La norme en matière religieuse en Grèce antique, ed. P. Brulé, 91–105. Liège: Centre International d'Étude de la Religion Grecque Antique.
Chaniotis, A. 2013a. “Processions in Hellenistic Cities: Contemporary Discourses and Ritual Dynamics.” In Cults, Creeds and Identities in the Greek City after the Classical Age, eds. Alston, Richard et al., 21–48. Leuven: Peeters.
Chaniotis, A. 2013b. “Staging and Feeling the Presence of God: Emotion and Theatricality in religious Celebrations in the Roman East.” In Panthée: Religious Transformations in the Graeco-Roman Empire, eds. L. Bricault, Laurent and C. Bonnet, 169-189. Leiden: Brill.
Classen, C., ed. 2014. A Cultural History of the Senses. 6 volumes. London: Bloomsbury.
Cooper, J.M. 2006. “Seneca on Moral Theory and Moral Improvement.” In Seeing Seneca Whole: Perspectives on Philosophy, Poetry and Politics, eds. K. Volk and G. Williams, 43–56. Leiden: Brill.
Crippa, S. 1999. “Entre vocalité et écriture: La voix de la Sbylle et les rites vocaux des magiciens.” In Zwischen Krise und Alltag: Antike Religionen im Mittelmeerraum, eds. C. Batsch, U. Egelhaaf-Gaiser and R. Stepper, 95–110. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner.
Csordas, T.J. 1997. The Sacred Self: A Cultural Phenomenology of Charismatic Healing. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press
Czachesz, I. 2015. “Religious Experience in Mediterranean Antiquity: Introduction to the Special Issue.” Journal of Cognitive Historiography 2: 5-13.
Czachesz, I. 2016. Cognitive Science and the New Testament: A New Approach to Early Christian Research. Oxford: UP.
D’Aquili, E. and A.B. Newberg. 1999. The Mystical Mind: Probing the Biology of Religious Experience. Minneapolis: Fortress Press.
Damasio, A. 2010. The Self Comes to Mind: Constructing the Conscious Brain. New York: Pantheon Books.
Daraki, M. 1989. Uni religiosité sans Dieu: essai sur les stoïciens d‘Athènes et saint Augustin. Paris: Éditions La Découverte.
De Bovis, A. 1948. La sagesse de Sénèque. Paris: Aubier.
Deeley, Q. et al. 2014. “Modelling Psychiatric and Cultural Possession Phenomena with Suggestion and fMRI.” Cortex 53: 107–119.
Demisch, H. 1984. Erhobene Hände: Geschichte einer Gebärde in der bildenden Kunst. Stuttgart: Urachhaus.
Dietsche, U. 2014. Strategie und Philosophie bei Seneca: Untersuchungen zur therapeutischen Technik in den “Epistulae Morales”. Berlin: De Gruyter.
Donald, M. 2001. A Mind so Rare: The Evolution of Human Consciousness. New York: W.W. Norton.
Durkheim, É. [1912] 1995. The Elementary Forms of Religious Life. New York: The Free Press.
Edwards, C. 2008. “Self-Scrutiny and Self-transformation in Seneca’s Letters.” In Seneca, ed. J.G. Fitch, 84–101. Oxford: UP.
Engels, B. 2019. Das Grottenheiligtum am Osthang von Pergamon: Eine Mikrostudie zur Kultpraxis im 1. Jh. v. Chr. Berlin: De Gruyter.
Feldt, L. 2017. “The Literary Aesthetics of Religious Narratives: Probing Literary-Aesthetic Form, Emotion, and Sensory Effects in Exodus 7–11.” In Aesthetics of Religion: A Connective Concept, eds. A.K. Grieser and J. Johnston, 121-143. Berlin: De Gruyter.
Fischer, S.E. 2008. Seneca als Theologe: Studien zum Verhältnis von Philosophie und Tragödiendichtung, Berlin: De Gruyter.
Forman, R.K.C. 1999. Mysticism, Mind, Consciousness. Albany: Univ. of New York Press.
Foucault, M. 1988. Technologies of the Self: A Seminar with Michel Foucault. Amherst: Univ. of Massachusetts Press.
Freyburger, G. 2001. “Prière silencieuse et prière murmurée dansla religion Romaine.” REL 79: 26–36.
Fuhrer, T. 2012. “Autor-Figurationen: Literatur als Ort der Inszenierung von Kompetenz”. In Performanz von Wissen: Strategien der Wissensvermittlung in der Vormoderne, eds. T. Fuhrer and A.-B. Renger, 129–148. Heidelberg: Winter.
Geertz, A.W. 2010. “Brain, Body and Culture: A Biocultural Theory of Religion.” Method and Theory in the Study of Religion 22: 304–321.
Girgensohn, K. 1921. Der seelische Aufbau des religiösen Erlebens: Eine religionspsychologische Untersuchung auf experimenteller Grundlage. Leipzig: Hirzel.
Gladigow, B. 1986. “Präsenz der Bilder-Präsenz der Götter: Kultbilder und Bilder der Götter in der griechischen Religion.” Visible Religion 4/5: 114–133.
Gladigow, B. 1990. “Epiphanie, Statuette, Kultbild: Griechische Gottesvorstellungen im Wechsel von Kontext und Medium.” Visible Religion 7: 98–121.
Graver, M.R. 2014. “Action and Emotion.” In Brill’s Companion to Seneca: Philosopher and Dramatist, eds. G. Damschen and A. Heil, 257–275. Leiden: Brill.
Grieser, A.K. and J. Johnston 2017. “What is an Aesthetics of Religion? From the Senses to Meaning—and Back Again.” In Aesthetics of Religion: A Connective Concept, eds. A.K. Grieser and J. Johnston, 1–49. Berlin: De Gruyter.
Guillemin, A. 1952. “Sénèque directeur d‘âmes I: L’ideal.” REL 30: 202–219.
Guillemin, A. 1953. “Sénèque directeur d‘âmes II: Son activité pratique.” REL 31, 215–234.
Guillemin, A. 1954. “Sénèque directeur d‘âmes III: Les theories littéraires.” REL 32, 265-284.
Guittard, C. 2007. “¿Existe una oración silenciosa en Roma?” Revista de Ciencias de Las Religiones 19: 133-141.
Habinek, T. 2000. “Seneca’s Renown: ‘Gloria, Claritudo’, and the Replication of the Roman Elite.” ClA 19: 264–303.
Hadot, I. 1969. Seneca und die griechisch-römische Tradition der Seelenleitung. Berlin: De Gruyter.
Hadot, I. 2014. “Getting to Goodness: Reflections on Chapter 10 of Brad Inwood, Reading Seneca.” In Seneca Philosophus, eds. J. Wildberger and M.L. Colish, 9-42. Berlin: De Gruyter.
Hadot, P. 1987. Exercices spirituels et philosophie antique. Paris.
Harkins, Angela K. 2015. “The Emotional Re-Experiencing of the Hortatory Narratives Found in the Admonition of the Damascus Document.” Dead Sea Discoveries 22: 285–307.
Harkins, A.K. and M. Popovi?, eds. 2015. “Religious Experience and the Dead Sea Scrolls.” Dead Sea Discoveries 22. Special Issue, 247–357.
Harvey, S.A. 2006. Scenting Salvation: Ancient Christianity and the Olfactory Imagination. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
Harvey, S.A. 2014. “The Senses in Religion: Piety, Critique, Competition.” In A Cultural History of the Senses in Antiquity: 500 BC – 500 AD, ed. J. Toner, 91–114. London: Bloomsbury.
Hick, J. [2006] 2010. The New Frontier of Religion and Science: Religious Experience, Neuroscience and the Transcendent. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Inwood, B. 2005. Reading Seneca: Stoic Philosophy at Rome. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Inwood, B. 2010. Selected Philosophical Letters. Oxford: UP.
Inwood, B. 2009. “Seneca and Self Assertion.” In Seneca and the Self, eds. S. Bartsch and D. Wray, 39–64. Cambridge: UP.
James, W. 1884. “What is an Emotion?” Mind 34: 188–205.
Kaufman, D.H. 2014. “Seneca on the Analysis and Therapy of Occurent Emotions.” In Seneca Philosophus, eds. J. Wildberger and M.L. Colish, 111–134. Berlin: De Gruyter.
Ker, J. 2009. The Deaths of Seneca. Oxford: UP.
Konstan, D. 2015. “Senecan Emotions.” In The Cambridge Companion to Seneca, eds. S. Bartsch and A. Schiesaro, 174–186. Cambridge: UP.
Köpping, K.P. and U. Rao. 2000. “Die ‘performative Wende’: Leben – Ritual –Theater.” In Im Rausch des Rituals: Gestaltung und Transformation der Wirklichkeit in körperlicher Performanz, eds. idd, 1–31. Münster: LIT.
Lausberg, M. 1970. Untersuchungen zu Senecas Fragmenten. Berlin: De Gruyter
Lewis, I.M. [1971] 2003. Ecstatic Religion: A Study of Shamanism and Spirit Possession. London: Routledge.
Long, A.A. “Seneca on the Self: Why now?” In Seneca and the Self, eds. S. Bartsch and D. Wray, 20–38. Cambridge: UP.
Martin, C. 2012. “William James in Late Capitalism: Our Religion of the Status Quo.” In Religious Experience: A Reader, eds. C. Martin and R.T. McCutcheon, 177–196. Sheffield: Equinox.
McNamara, P. 2009. The Neuroscience of Religious Experience. Cambridge: UP.
Merckel, C. 2011. “Prière philosophique et transcendance divine: L’intériorité dans la religion de Sénèque.” REL 89: 133–153.
Merckel, C. 2012. Seneca theologus: La religion d’un philosophe romain. Diss. Strasbourg.
Meyer, B. 2008. “Media and the Senses in the Making of Religious Experience: An Introduction.” Material Religion 4: 124–135.
Meyer, B., ed. 2010. Aesthetic Formations: Media, Religion, and the Senses. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Münster, D. 2001. Religionsästhetik und Anthropologie der Sinne: Vorarbeiten zu einer Religionsethnologie der Produktion und Rezeption ritueller Medien. München: Akademie-Verlag.
Mylonopoulos, J. 2008. “Natur als Heiligtum-Natur im Heiligtum.” AfR 10: 51–84.
Newman, R.J. 2008. “In umbra virtutis: Gloria in the Thought of Seneca the Philosopher.” In Seneca, eds. J.G. Fitch, 316–334. Oxford UP.
Niedenthal, P.M. et al. 2005. “Embodiment in Attitudes, Social Perception, and Emotion.” Personality and Social Psychology Review 9: 184–211.
Nussbaum, M.C. 2001. Upheavals of Thought: The Intelligence of Emotions. Cambridge: UP.
Oesterreich, T.K. 1915. Die religiöse Erfahrung als philosophisches Problem. Berlin: Reuther & Reichard.
Oesterreich, T.K. 1921. Die Besessenheit. Langensalza: Wendt & Klauwell.
Otto, R. [1917] 1991. Das Heilige: Über das Irrationale in der Idee des Göttlichen und sein Verhältnis zum Rationalen. München: C.H. Beck.
Panagiotidou, O. 2014. “The Asklepios Cult: Where Brains, Minds, and Bodies Interact with the World, Creating New Realities.” Journal of Cognitive Historiography 1: 14–23.
Panagiotidou, O. 2017. The Roman Mithras Cult A Cognitive Approach. London: Bloomsbury.
Patzelt, M. 2018. Über das Beten der Römer: Gebete im spätrepublikanischen und frühkaiserzeitlichen Rom als Ausdruck gelebter Religion. RGVV 73. Berlin: De Gruyter.
Pentcheva, B. 2014. “The Power of Glittering Materiality: Mirror Reflections Between Poetry and Architecture in Greek and Arabic Medieval Culture.” Ancient Near Eastern Studies. Supplementa 47: 223–68.
Petridou, G. 2016. “Speaking Louder with the Eyes: Eye-shaped Ex-Votos in Context.” Religion in the Roman Empire 2: 372–390
Petsalis-Diomidis, A. 2005. “The Body in Space: Visual Dynamics in Graeco-Roman Healing Pilgrimage.” In Seeing the Gods: Patterns of Pilgrimage in Antiquity, eds. I. Rutherford and J. Elsner, 183–218. Oxford: UP.
Pigeaud, J. 1981. La maladie de l'âme: étude sur la relation de l'âme et du corps dans la tradition médico-philosophique antique. Paris: Les Belles Lettres.
Rabbow, P. 1954. Seelenführung Methodik der Exerzitien in der Antike: München: Kösel.
Revonsuo, A. et al. 2009. “What is an altered state of consciousness?” Philosophical Psychology 22: 187–204.
Rieger, A.-K. 2018. “Imagining the Absent and Perceiving the Present: An Interpretation of Material Remains of Divinities from the Rock Sanctuary at Caesarea Philippi (Gaulanitis).” In Seeing the God: Image, Space, Performance, and Vision in the Religion of the Roman Empire, eds. M. Arnhold, H.O. Maier and J. Rüpke, 27–58. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck.
Robertson, D. 2010. The Philosophy of Cognitive-Behavourial Therapy (CBT): Stoic Philosophy as Rational and Cognitive Psychotherapy. London: Routledge.
Rouget, G. 1985. Music and Trance: A Theory of the Relations Between Music and Possession. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
Rüpke, J. 2016. Pantheon: Geschichte der antiken Religionen. München: C.H. Beck.
Russell, D. C. 2004. “Virtue as ‘Likeness to God’ in Plato and Seneca.” Journal of the History of Philosophy 42: 241–60.
Scheer, T.S. 2001. “Die Götter anrufen: Die Kontaktaufnahme zwischen Mensch und Gottheit in der Antike.” In Gebet und Fluch, Zeichen und Traum: Aspekte religiöser Kommunikation in der Antike, eds. K. Brodersen, 31–56. Münster: LIT.
Scheid, J. 2012. “Natur und Religion: Zu einigen Missverständnissen.” In Natur -Kult – Raum: Akten des internationalen Kolloquiums Paris-London-Universität Salzburg 2012, ed. K. Sporn, 303–312. Wien: Österreichisches Archäologisches Institut.
Schjoedt, U. et al. 2013. “Images from a Jointly-Arousing Collective Ritual Reveal Affective Polarization.” Frontiers in Psychology 4.
Schjoedt, U. 2009. “The Religious Brain: A General Introduction to the Experimental Neuroscience of Religion”. Method and Theory in the Study of Religion 21: 310–339.
Setaioli, A. 2007a. “Seneca and the Divine.” IJCT 13: 333–368
Setaioli, A. 2007b. “Some Ideas of Seneca’s Beauty.” Prometheus 33: 49–65.
Setaioli, A. 2014. “Philosophy as Therapy: Self-Transformation, and ‘Lebensform’.” In Brill’s Companion to Seneca: Philosopher and Dramatist, eds. G. Damschen and A. Heil, 239–256. Leiden: Brill.
Sharf, R.H. 2000. “The Rhetoric of Experience and the Study of Religion.” Journal of Consciousness Studies 7: 267-87.
Sittl, K. 1890. Die Gebärden der Griechen und Römer. Leipzig: Teubner.
Sorabji, R. 2002. Emotion and Peace of Mind: From Stoic Agitation to Christian Temptation. Oxford: UP.
Starr, G. 2013. Feeling Beauty: The Neuroscience of Aesthetic Experience. MIT Press.
Sudhaus, S. 1906. “Lautes und leises Beten.” ARW 9: 185–200.
Taves, A. 2009. Religious Experience Reconsidered: A Building Block Approach to the Study of Religion and other special Things. Princeton: UP.
Toner, J., ed. 2014. A Cultural History of the Senses in Antiquity. London: Bloomsbury.
Turcan, R. 1967. Sénèque et les religions orientales. Brüssel: Latomus.
Ustinova, Y. 2009. Caves and the Ancient Greek Mind: Descending Underground in the Search for Ultimate Truth. Oxford: UP.
Ustinova, Y. 2018. Divine Mania: Alteration of Consciousness in Ancient Greece. London: Routledge.
Ustinova, Y. 2019. “Hirpi Sorani and Modern Fire-Walkers: Rejoicing through Pain in Extreme Rituals.” In Sensorium: The Senses in Ancient Religion, eds. Anton Alvar and Greg Woolf. Leiden: Brill. Forthcoming.
van der Horst, P.W. 1994. “Silent Prayer in Antiquity.” Numen 41: 1–25.
Wildberger, J. 2006. Seneca und die Stoa: Der Platz des Menschen in der Welt. Berlin: De Gruyter.
Wilson, M. 2008. “Seneca’s Epistles to Lucilius: A Revaluation.” In Seneca, eds. J.G. Fitch, 59–83. Oxford UP.
Wulff, D.M. 1991. Psychology of Religion: Classic and Contemporary Views. New York: Wiley.