Morality, Altruism, and Religion in Economics Perspective
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1558/eph.v20i2.19Keywords:
humanism, altruism, morality, human behaviourAbstract
Recent brain imaging studies support sociobiology’s earlier claims about morality, altruism, and religion being rooted in evolved brain function. Despite these insights, however, neuroscience and sociobiology, like theology, provide incomplete answers to persistent what and why questions regarding the metaphysical aspects of human behavior. This essay addresses some unsettled issues along these lines by combining a priori economics principles with the standard consilience of natural science and moral philosophy.
References
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Leibenstein, Harvey. 1966. “Allocative Efficiency vs. ‘X–Efficiency’,” American Economic Review 56: 392–415.
Levitt, Steven, and Stephen Dubner. 2009. Super Freakonomics. New York: William Morrow.
Lipsey, Richard, and Kevin Lancaster. 1956. “The General Theory of the Second Best,” Review of Economic Studies 24: 11–32.
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Penrose, Roger. 2010. Cycles of Time: An Extraordinary New View of the Universe. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
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Posner, Richard. 1998. Economic Analysis of Law, 5th edn. New York: Aspen Law and Business.
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Rand, Ayn. 1961. The Virtue of Selfishness. New York: Signet.
Rawls, John. 1971. A Theory of Justice. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Ridley, Matt. 1997. The Origins of Virtue: Human Instincts and the Evolution of Cooperation. New York: Viking.
Ridley, Matt. 2010. The Rational Optimist: How Prosperity Evolves. New York: HarperCollins.
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Schelling, Thomas. The Strategy of Conflict. New York: Oxford University Press.
Schjoedt, Uffe, Hans Strdkilde-Jrrgensen, Armin W. Geertz, and Andreas Roepstorff. 2009. “Highly Religious Participants Recruit Areas of Social Cognition in Personal Prayer,” Journal of Social, Cognitive, and Affective Neuroscience 4(2): 199–207. Available online at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2686228/pdf/nsn050.pdf.
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Arrow, Kenneth. 1972. “Gifts and Exchanges,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 1: 343–362.
Atran, Scott. 2002. In Gods We Trust: The Evolutionary Landscape of Religion. New York: Oxford University Press.
Axelrod, Robert. 1984. The Evolution of Cooperation. New York: Basic Books.
Baily, F. G. 1988. Humbuggery and Manipulation: The Art of Leadership. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.
Barkin, Jerome, Leda Cosmides, and John Tooby. 1992. The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and the Generation of Culture. New York: Oxford University Press.
Barro, Robert, and Rachael McCleary. 2003. “Religion and Economic Growth,” Harvard University Working Paper (April 8). Available online at http://www.economics.harvard. edu/faculty/barro/papers/Religion_and_Economic_Growth.pdf.
Baumol, William. 1987. Superfairness: Applications + Theory. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
Becker, Gary. 1976. The Economic Approach to Human Behavior. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Beinhocker, Eric. 2006. The Origin of Wealth: Evolution, Complexity, and the Radical Remaking of Economics. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard Business School Press.
Bellah, Robert. 2011. Religion in Human Evolution: From the Paleolithic to the Axial Age. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
Bergstrom, Carl. 2011. “Honest Economics.” Available online at http://octavia.zoology. washington.edu/handicap/honest_economics_01.html.
Buchanan, James. 1975. The Limits of Liberty: Between Anarchy and Leviathan. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Darwin, Charles. 1859. On The Origin of Species. London: John Murray.
Darwin, Charles. 1871. The Descent of Man. New York: D. Appleton and Company.
Darwin, Charles. 1896. The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. New York: D. Appleton and Company.
Dawkins, Richard. [1976] 1989. The Selfish Gene, new edn. New York: Oxford University Press.
Dawkins, Richard. 1995. River Out of Eden: A Darwinian View of Life. New York: Basic Books.
Dawkins, Richard. 2006. The God Delusion. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
de Waal, Frans. 1996. Good Natured: The Origins of Right and Wrong in Human and Other Animals. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Ekelund, Robert, Robert Hebert, Robert Tollison, Gary Anderson, and Audrey Davidson. 1996. Sacred Trust: The Medieval Church as an Economic Firm. New York: Oxford University Press.
Ellickson, Robert. 1991. Order Without Law: How Neighbors Settle Disputes. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Farber, Paul Lawrence. 1994. The Temptations of Evolutionary Ethics. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Farina, Francesco, Frank Hahn, and Stefano Vannucci, eds. 1996. Ethics, Rationality, and Economic Behavior. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Fehr, Ernst, and Simon Gächter. 2002. “Altruistic Punishment in Humans,” Nature 415: 137– 140.
Fukuyama, Francis. 1995. Trust: The Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity. New York: The Free Press.
Fukuyama, Francis.. 1999. The Great Disruption: Human Nature and the Reconstitution of Social Order. New York: The Free Press.
Fukuyama, Francis.. 2011. The Origins of Political Order: From Prehuman Times to the French Revolution. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
Gauthier, David. 1986. Morals by Agreement. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Gauthier, David. 1990. Moral Dealing: Contract, Ethics, and Reason. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.
Gazzaniga, Michael. 2011. Who’s in Charge: Free Will and the Science of the Brain. New York: HarperCollins.
Ginitis, Herbert, Samuel Bowles, Robert Boyd, and Ernst Fuhr. 2005. Moral Sentiments and Material Interests. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
Glimcher, Paul. 2002. Decisions, Uncertainty, and the Brain. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
Glimcher, Paul, Colin Camerer, Ernst Fehr, and Russell Poldrack, eds. 2009. Neuroeconomics: Decision Making and the Brain. New York: Elsevier.
Greene, Brian. 2011. The Hidden Reality: Parallel Universes and the Deep Laws of the Cosmos. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Hamlin, Alan, ed. 1996. Ethics and Economics. 2 vols. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.
Hamlin, J. Kiley. Karen Wynn, and Paul Bloom. 2007. “Social Evaluation by Preverbal Infants,” Nature 450: 557–559.
Hardin, Garrett. 1968. “A Tragedy of the Commons,” Science 162: 1243–1248.
Hauser, Mark. 2006. Moral Minds: How Nature Designed Our Universal Sense of Right and Wrong. New York: HarperCollins.
Hawking, Steven. 1988. A Brief History of Time. New York: Bantam Books.
Hawking, Steven, and Leonard Mlodinow. 2010. The Grand Design. New York: Bantam Books.
Hayek, F. A. 1988. The Fatal Conceit: The Errors of Socialism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Hobbes, Thomas. [1651] 1998. Leviathan. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hocutt, Max. 2000. Grounded Ethics: The Empirical Bases of Normative Judgments. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers.
Hsu, Ming, Cedric Anen, and Steven Quartz. 2008. “The Right and the Good: Distributive Justice and Neural Encoding of Equity and Efficiency,” Science 320: 1092–1095.
Huxley, Thomas. 1896. Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays. New York: Appleton.
Joyce, Richard. 2001. The Myth of Morality. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Joyce, Richard. 2006. The Evolution of Morality. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
Kant, Immanuel. [1782] 1922. Critique of Pure Reason. New York: Macmillan.
Kapogiannis, Dimitrios, Aron K. Barbey, Michael Su, Frank Krueger, and Jordan Grafman. 2009. “Neuroanatomical Variability of Religiosity,” PLoS One 4(9): e7180.
Laurent, John, ed. 2003. Evolutionary Economics and Human Nature. Cheltenham, U.K.: Edward Elgar.
Laurent, John, and John Nightingale, eds. 2001. Darwinism and Evolutionary Economics. Cheltenham, U.K.: Edward Elgar.
Leibenstein, Harvey. 1966. “Allocative Efficiency vs. ‘X–Efficiency’,” American Economic Review 56: 392–415.
Levitt, Steven, and Stephen Dubner. 2009. Super Freakonomics. New York: William Morrow.
Lipsey, Richard, and Kevin Lancaster. 1956. “The General Theory of the Second Best,” Review of Economic Studies 24: 11–32.
Locke. John. [1689] 1824. “Four Letters on Toleration,” in The Works of John Locke in Nine Volumes, 12th edn, vol 5. London: Rivington. Available online at http://oll.libertyfund.org/ index.php?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=764&Itemid=28. Locke. John. [1690] 1988. Second Treatise on Government. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
McCloskey, Deirdre (née Donald). 1985. The Rhetoric of Economics. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
McCloskey, Deirdre (née Donald). 1994. Knowledge and Persuasion in Economics. New York: Cambridge University Press.
McCloskey, Deirdre (née Donald). 2006. The Bourgeois Virtues: Ethics For an Age of Commerce. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Mises, Ludwig von. [1922] 1981. Socialism: An Economic and Sociological Analysis. Indianapolis: Liberty Fund. Available online at http://oll.libertyfund.org/index.php? option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=1060&Itemid=28.
Mises, Ludwig von. 1949. Human Action. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.
Montanye, James A. 2006. “Entrepreneurship,” The Independent Review 10(4): 549–571. Available online at http://www.independent.org/publications/tir/article.asp?a=574.
Montanye, James A.. 2009. “Civilization Without Romance,” Essays in the Philosophy of Humanism 17(2): 103–128.
Montanye, James A. 2011. “Property Rights and the Limits of Religious Liberty,” The Independent Review 16(1): 27–52. Available online at http://www.independent.org/ publications/tir/article.asp?a=837.
Mueller, John. 2010. Redeeming Economics: Rediscovering the Missing Element. Wilmington, Del.: ISI Books.
Nelson, Robert. 2010. The New Holy Wars: Economic Religion vs. Environmental Religion in Contemporary America. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press and The Independent Institute.
Nelson, Richard, and Sidney Winter. 1982. An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
Newberg, Andrew. 2010. Principles of Neurotheology. Surry, U.K.: Ashgate Publishing.
Newberg, Andrew, Eugene D’Aquili, and Vince Rause. 2001. Why God Won’t Go Away: Brain Science and the Biology of Belief. New York: Ballantine Books.
Newberg, Andrew, and Robert Waldman. 2009. How God Changes Your Brain. New York: Ballantine Books.
Niebuhr, Helmut Richard. 1989. Faith on Earth: An Inquiry into the Structure of Human Faith, ed. Richard R. Niebuhr. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.
Nisbett, Richard, and Dov Cohen. 1996. Culture of Honor: The Psychology of Violence in the South. Boulder, Col.: Westview Press.
Nowak, Martin, with Roger Highfield. 2011. SuperCooperators: Altruism, Evolution, and Why We Need Each Other to Succeed. New York: The Free Press.
Olson, Mancur. 1993. “Dictatorship, Democracy, and Development,” American Political Science Review 87(3): 567–576.
Oslington, Paul, ed. 2003. Economics and Religion, 2 vols. Cheltenham, U.K.: Elgar Reference Collection.
Ostrum, Elinor. 1990. Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Penrose, Roger. 2010. Cycles of Time: An Extraordinary New View of the Universe. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Polkinghorne, John, ed. 2001. The Work of Love: Creation as Kenosis. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans.
Posner, Eric. 2000. Law and Social Norms. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Posner, Richard. 1998. Economic Analysis of Law, 5th edn. New York: Aspen Law and Business.
Putnam, Robert. 2000. Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Posner, Richard, and David Campbell. 2010. American Grace: How Religion Divides and Unites Us. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Quigley, Carroll. [1961] 1979. The Evolution of Civilizations: An Introduction to Historical Analysis, 2nd edn. Indianapolis: Liberty Fund.
Rand, Ayn. 1961. The Virtue of Selfishness. New York: Signet.
Rawls, John. 1971. A Theory of Justice. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Ridley, Matt. 1997. The Origins of Virtue: Human Instincts and the Evolution of Cooperation. New York: Viking.
Ridley, Matt. 2010. The Rational Optimist: How Prosperity Evolves. New York: HarperCollins.
Rosen, Lawrence. 2010. “Understanding Corruption,” The American Interest 5:4 (March– April). Available online at http://www.the-american-interest.com/article.cfm?piece=792.
Rothschild, Michael. 1990. Bionomics: The Inevitability of Capitalism. New York: Henry Holt.
Rubin, Paul. 2002. Darwinian Politics: The Evolutionary Origins of Freedom. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press.
Ruse, Michael. 2009. Philosophy After Darwin: Classic and Contemporary Readings. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press.
Schelling, Thomas. The Strategy of Conflict. New York: Oxford University Press.
Schjoedt, Uffe, Hans Strdkilde-Jrrgensen, Armin W. Geertz, and Andreas Roepstorff. 2009. “Highly Religious Participants Recruit Areas of Social Cognition in Personal Prayer,” Journal of Social, Cognitive, and Affective Neuroscience 4(2): 199–207. Available online at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2686228/pdf/nsn050.pdf.
Seligman, Adam. 1997. The Problem of Trust. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
Sidgwick, Henry. 1876. “The Theory of Evolution and its Application to Practice,” Mind 1: 52–67. Available online at http://www.utilitarian.net/sidgwick/by/187601--.pdf .
Signaling Theory. 2011. Article online at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signaling_theory.
Smith, Adam. [1753] 1996. The Theory of Moral Sentiments. New York: Augustus M. Kelley.
Smith, Adam. [1776] 1976. An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Stark, Rodney, and Roger Finke. 2000. Acts of Faith: Explaining the Human Side of Religion. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Thaler, Richard, and Cass Sunstein. 2008. Nudge: Improving Decisions About Health, Wealth, and Happiness. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.
Trivers, Robert. 1985. Social Evolution. Menlo Park, N.J.: Benjamin/Cummings.
The Vatican. 1995. Catechism of the Catholic Church. New York: Doubleday.
Weikert, Richard. 1995. “A Recently Discovered Letter on Social Darwinism,” Isis 86: 609– 611.
Wilson, David Sloan. 2002. Darwin’s Cathedral: Evolution, Religion, and the Nature of Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Wilson, E.O. 1978. On Human Nature. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Wilson, E.O. 1998. Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge. New York: Vintage Books.
Wilson, E.O. 2012. The Social Conquest of Earth. New York: Liveright Publications.
Wilson, James Q. 1993. The Moral Sense. New York: The Free Press.
Wolfram, Steven. 2002. A New Kind of Science. Champaign, Ill.: Wolfram Media.
Published
2013-11-06
Issue
Section
Articles
How to Cite
Montanye, J. (2013). Morality, Altruism, and Religion in Economics Perspective. Essays in the Philosophy of Humanism, 20(2), 19-44. https://doi.org/10.1558/eph.v20i2.19
