Intra-lingual pragmatic variation in Mandarin Chinese apologies
Influence of region and gender
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1558/eap.38215Keywords:
chinese apologies, variational pragmatics, regional variation, gender difference, macro- and micro-social factorsAbstract
This study investigates regional and gender variations of apologies in Putonghua ‘Standard Mandarin' and Guoyu ‘Taiwanese Mandarin'. Production data were elicited from 40 participants from northern Mainland China and 34 from Taipei using an oral discourse completion task. Results showed that speakers in both regions employed a similar sequence of strategies and demonstrated similar preferences for context-dependent strategies in their apologies, but Mainland speakers used a significantly greater number of strategies than Taiwan speakers. Gender differences were observed in the apologies produced by Taiwan speakers regarding their use of illocutionary force indicating devices. The study found an interaction effect of power relation and region, with Mainland speakers sounding more apologetic than Taiwan speakers, but no interaction effect of power relation and gender; the effect of severity of offence was not clear, which could be attributed to the gap between the predetermined level of severity and speakers' actual perception of it in each scenario.
References
Bardovi-Harlig, K. (2009). Conventional expressions as a pragmalinguistic resource: Recognition and production of conventional expressions in L2 pragmatics. Language Learning, 59(4), 755–795. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2009.00525.x
Bardovi-Harlig, K. (2013). Research design: From text to task. In R. Salaberry & L. Comajoan (Eds.), Research design and methodology in studies on second language tense and aspect (pp. 219–269). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781934078167.219
Bardovi-Harlig, K., & Su, Y. (2018). The acquisition of conventional expressions as a pragmalinguistic resources in Chinese as a foreign language. The Modern Language Journal, 102(4), 732–757. https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12517
Barron, A. (2008). The structure of requests in Irish English and English English. In K. P. Schneider & A. Barron (Eds.), Variational pragmatics: A focus on regional varieties in pluricentric languages (pp. 35–67). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/pbns.178.04bar
Barron, A., & Schneider, K. P. (2009). Variational pragmatics: Studying the impact of social factors on language use interaction. Intercultural Pragmatics, 6(4), 425–442. https://doi.org/10.1515/IPRG.2009.023
Bergman, M. L., & Kasper, G. (1993). Perception and performance in native and nonnative apology. In G. Kasper & S. Blum-Kulka (Eds.), Interlanguage Pragmatics (pp. 82–107). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Blum-Kulka, S., House, J., & Kasper, G. (1989). Cross-cultural pragmatics: Requests and apologies. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Breuer, A., & Geluykens, R. (2007). Variation in British and American English requests: A contrastive study. In B. Kraft & R. Geluykens (Eds.), Cross-cultural pragmatics and interlanguage English (pp. 107–125). Munich: Lincom.
Brown, P., & Levinson, S. D. (1987). Politeness: Some universals in language usage. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Chamani, F. (2014). Gender differences in the use of apology speech act in Persian. International Journal of Linguistics, 6(6), 46–62. https://doi.org/10.5296/ijl.v6i6.6231
Chang, S.-M. (2004). A study on situational apology of Mandarin Chinese (Unpublished MA thesis). National Kaoshiung Normal University, Taiwan.
Chang, Y. F. (2016). Apologizing in Mandarin Chinese: A study on developmental patterns. Concentric: Studies in Linguistics, 42(1), 73–101.
Chang, Y. F. (2017). Guoyu daoqian celue de chabie xiaoying yanjiu (A study on the single and joint effects of apology component). Taiwan Journal of Chinese as a Second Language, 14, 111–134.
Chang, Y. F. (2018). The effect of an interlocutor’s social status on the use of apology strategies: A cross-sectional study. Concentric: Studies in Linguistics, 44(1), 89–122.
Chen, H.-P. 2008. A sociopragmatic study on gender differences in apologetic strategies (Unpublished MA thesis). Fu Jen Catholic University, Taiwan.
Cheng, R. (1985). A comparison of Taiwanese, Taiwan Mandarin, and Peking Mandarin. Language, 61(2), 352-277. https://doi.org/10.2307/414149
Coates, J. (2004). Women, men, and language: A sociolinguistics account of gender differences in language. Harlow: Pearson Longman.
Cohen, A. D., & Olshtain, E. (1981). Developing a measure of sociocultural competence: The case of apology. Language Learning, 31(1), 113–134. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1981.tb01375.x
Félix-Brasdefer, J. C. (2008). Sociopragmatic variation: Dispreferred responses in Mexican and Dominican Spanish. Journal of Politeness Research, 4(1), 81–110. https://doi.org/10.1515/PR.2008.004
Félix-Brasdefer, J. C. (2009). Pragmatic variation across Spanish(es): Requesting in Mexican, Costa Rican, and Dominican Spanish. Intercultural Pragmatics, 6(4), 473–515. https://doi.org/10.1515/IPRG.2009.025
Félix-Brasdefer, J. C. (2010). Intra-lingual pragmatic variation in Mexico City and San José, Costa Rica: A focus on regional differences in female requests. Journal of Pragmatics 42(11), 2992–3011. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2010.04.015
Fraser, B. (1981). On apologizing. In F. Coulmas (Ed.), Conversational routine: Exploration in standardized communication situations and prepatterned speech (pp. 259–271). Mouton: The Hague. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110809145.259
Fu, B. (2010). Hanyu daoqianyu de yanjiu (A study on apology terms in Chinese). Waiyu Jiaoxue Yanjiu (Language Teaching and Research), 6, 70–77.
García, C. (2008). Different realizations of solidarity politeness: Comparing Venezuelan and Argentinean invitations. In K. P. Schneider & A. Barron (Eds.), Variational pragmatics: A focus on regional varieties in pluricentric languages (pp. 269–305). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/pbns.178.13gar
Gelfand, M. J., & Cai, D. A. (2004). Cultural structuring of the social context of negotiation. In M. J. Gelfand & J .M. Brett (Eds.), The handbook of negotiation and culture (pp. 238–257). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Goffman, E. (1971). Relations in public: Microstudies of the public order. New York: Basic Books.
Herbert, R. K. (1990). Sex-based differences in compliment behavior. Language in Society, 19(2), 201–224. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047404500014378
Holmes, J. (1989). Sex differences and apologies: One aspect of communicative competence. Applied Linguistics, 10(2), 194–213. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/10.2.194
Holmes, J. (1995). Women, men and politeness. London: Longman.
Jin (2012). Hanyu daoqianyu ‘duibuqi’ he ‘buhaoyisi’ de duibi shizheng yanjiu (A contrastive empirical study on apology terms ‘I’m sorry’ and ‘Excuse me’). Intelligence, 25, 158.
Johns, A., & Félix-Brasdefer, J. C. (2015). Linguistic politeness and pragmatic variation in request production in Dakar French. Journal of Politeness Research, 11(1), 131–164. https://doi.org/10.1515/pr-2015-0006
Kadar, D., Haugh, M., & Chang, W.-L. (2013). Aggression and perceived national face threats in Mainland Chinese and Taiwanese CMC discussion boards. Multilingua: Journal of Cross-Cultural and Interlanguage Communication, 32(3)343–372. https://doi.org/10.1515/multi-2013-0016
Kecskes, I. (2016). Situation-bound utterances in Chinese. East Asian Pragmatics, 1(1), 107–126. https://doi.org/10.1558/eap.v1i1.29098
Kinnison, L. (2017). Power, integrity, and mask – An attempt to disentangle the Chinese face concept. Journal of Pragmatics, 114, 32–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2017.03.015
Kubler, C. C. (1985). Influence of Southern Min on the Mandarin of Taiwan. Anthropological Linguistics, 27, 156–176.
Kuo, Y.-C. (2005). New dialect formation: The case of Taiwanese Mandarin (Doctoral dissertation). University of Essex, UK. Retrieved from Proquest Dissertations and Theses Global database (Publication No. C820816).
Lin, C. Y., Woodfield, H., & Ren, W. (2012). Compliments in Taiwan and Mainland Chinese: The influence of region and compliment topic. Journal of Pragmatics, 44(11), 1486–1502. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2012.06.012
Liu, T.-Y. (2008). A pragmatic study on sex differences in Mandarin apology strategies of Taiwanese undergraduate students (Unpublished MA thesis). National Hsinchu Teacher’s College, Taiwan.
Luo, C. (2004). Hanyu ‘daoqian’ huayu moshi (The pattern of ‘apology’ terms in Chinese). Jinan Daxue Huawen Xueyuan Xuebao (Journal of College of Chinese Language and Culture of Jinan University), 13(1), 52–58.
Nureddeen, F. A. (2008). Cross-cultural pragmatics: Apology strategies in Sudanese Arabic. Journal of Pragmatics, 40(2), 279–306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2007.11.001
Okano, E., & Brown, L. (2018). Did Becky really need to apologise? Intercultural evaluations of politeness. East Asian Pragmatics, 3(2), 151–178. https://doi.org/10.1558/eap.35178
Olshtain, E., & Cohen, A. (1983). Apology: A speech act set. In N. Wolfson & J. Elliot (Eds.), Sociolinguistics and language acquisition (pp. 18–36). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Pan, Y. (2000). Politeness in Chinese face-to-face interaction. Stamford, CT: Ablex Publishing Corporation.
Parisi, C., & Wogan, P. (2006). Compliment topics and gender. Women and Language, 29(2), 21–28.
Placencia, M. E. (2008). Requests in corner shop transactions in Ecuadorian Andean and Coastal Spanish. In K. P. Schneider & A. Barron (Eds.), Variational pragmatics: A focus on regional varieties in pluricentric languages (pp. 307–332). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/pbns.178.14pla
Qin, L. (2015). Hanyu diaoqian yanyu xingwei yanjiu (A study on apologies in Chinese). Yuwen Jiaoxue Tongxun (Bulletin of Chinese Language Teaching), 826(2), 71–74.
Ren, W. (2015). Sociopragmatic variation in Mainland and Taiwan Chinese refusals. In K. Beeching & H. Woodfield (Eds.), Researching sociopragmatic variability: Perspectives from variational, interlanguage and contrastive pragmatics (pp. 72–93). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137373953_4
Ren, W. (2018). Hanyu qingqiu yuyan xingwei de bianyi yuyongxue yanjiu (A variational pragmatic study on requests in Chinese). Waiyu Jiaoxue (Journal of Foreign Languages), 41(4), 66–75.
Schneider, K. P., & Barron, A. (Eds.). (2008). Variational pragmatics: A focus on regional varieties in pluricentric languages. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/pbns.178
Schölmberger, U. (2008). Apologizing in French French and Canadian French. In K. P. Schneider & A. Barron (Eds.), Variational pragmatics: A focus on regional varieties in pluricentric languages (pp. 333–354). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/pbns.178.15sch
Scollon, R., & Scollon, S. W. (2001). Discourse and intercultural communication. In D. Schiffrin, D. Tannen, & H. Hamilton (Eds.), The handbook of discourse analysis (pp. 538–547). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Shi, N., & Li, B. (2015). Hanyu daoqian yujing fenbu de shizheng yanjiu – Yi ‘duibuqi’, ‘buhaoyisi’, ‘baoqian’ weili (An empirical study of situational variation of Chinese apologies – The cases of duibuqi ‘I’m sorry’, buhaoyisi ‘I’m embarrassed’, and baoqian ‘I apologize’). Xiandai Yuwen (Modern Chinese), 2015(10), 109–112.
Spencer-Oatey, H., & Kadar, D. (2016). The bases of (im)politeness evaluations: Culture, the moral order and the East–West debate. East Asian Pragmatics, 1(1), 73-106. https://doi.org/10.1558/eap.v1i1.29084
Tsai, P.-C. (2000). A study of the speech act of apology in Chinese (Unpublished MA thesis). National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan.
Warga, M. (2008). Requesting in German as a pluricentric language. In K. P. Schneider & A. Barron (Eds.), Variational pragmatics: A focus on regional varieties in pluricentric languages (pp. 245–266). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/pbns.178.11war
Wolfson, N. (1984). Pretty is as pretty does: A speech act view of sex roles. Applied Linguistics, 5(3), 236–244. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/5.3.236
Wolfson, N. (1986). The bulge: A theory of speech behavior and social distance. Working Papers in Educational Linguistics, 2(1), 55–83.
Yao, C. (2008). Hanyu daoqian pinci de xingbie chayi yanjiu (Gender differences in apology frequencies in Chinese). Waiyu Yishu Jiaoyu Yanjiu (Educational Research on Foreign Languages & Arts), 2008(3), 31–34.
Yuan, Y. (2001). An inquiry into empirical pragmatics data-gathering methods: Written DCTs, oral DCTs, field notes, and natural conversations. Journal of Pragmatics, 33(2), 271–292. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-2166(00)00031-X
Ziegler, A. (2011). Generalized estimating equations. New York: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-0499-6
Bardovi-Harlig, K. (2013). Research design: From text to task. In R. Salaberry & L. Comajoan (Eds.), Research design and methodology in studies on second language tense and aspect (pp. 219–269). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781934078167.219
Bardovi-Harlig, K., & Su, Y. (2018). The acquisition of conventional expressions as a pragmalinguistic resources in Chinese as a foreign language. The Modern Language Journal, 102(4), 732–757. https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12517
Barron, A. (2008). The structure of requests in Irish English and English English. In K. P. Schneider & A. Barron (Eds.), Variational pragmatics: A focus on regional varieties in pluricentric languages (pp. 35–67). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/pbns.178.04bar
Barron, A., & Schneider, K. P. (2009). Variational pragmatics: Studying the impact of social factors on language use interaction. Intercultural Pragmatics, 6(4), 425–442. https://doi.org/10.1515/IPRG.2009.023
Bergman, M. L., & Kasper, G. (1993). Perception and performance in native and nonnative apology. In G. Kasper & S. Blum-Kulka (Eds.), Interlanguage Pragmatics (pp. 82–107). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Blum-Kulka, S., House, J., & Kasper, G. (1989). Cross-cultural pragmatics: Requests and apologies. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Breuer, A., & Geluykens, R. (2007). Variation in British and American English requests: A contrastive study. In B. Kraft & R. Geluykens (Eds.), Cross-cultural pragmatics and interlanguage English (pp. 107–125). Munich: Lincom.
Brown, P., & Levinson, S. D. (1987). Politeness: Some universals in language usage. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Chamani, F. (2014). Gender differences in the use of apology speech act in Persian. International Journal of Linguistics, 6(6), 46–62. https://doi.org/10.5296/ijl.v6i6.6231
Chang, S.-M. (2004). A study on situational apology of Mandarin Chinese (Unpublished MA thesis). National Kaoshiung Normal University, Taiwan.
Chang, Y. F. (2016). Apologizing in Mandarin Chinese: A study on developmental patterns. Concentric: Studies in Linguistics, 42(1), 73–101.
Chang, Y. F. (2017). Guoyu daoqian celue de chabie xiaoying yanjiu (A study on the single and joint effects of apology component). Taiwan Journal of Chinese as a Second Language, 14, 111–134.
Chang, Y. F. (2018). The effect of an interlocutor’s social status on the use of apology strategies: A cross-sectional study. Concentric: Studies in Linguistics, 44(1), 89–122.
Chen, H.-P. 2008. A sociopragmatic study on gender differences in apologetic strategies (Unpublished MA thesis). Fu Jen Catholic University, Taiwan.
Cheng, R. (1985). A comparison of Taiwanese, Taiwan Mandarin, and Peking Mandarin. Language, 61(2), 352-277. https://doi.org/10.2307/414149
Coates, J. (2004). Women, men, and language: A sociolinguistics account of gender differences in language. Harlow: Pearson Longman.
Cohen, A. D., & Olshtain, E. (1981). Developing a measure of sociocultural competence: The case of apology. Language Learning, 31(1), 113–134. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1981.tb01375.x
Félix-Brasdefer, J. C. (2008). Sociopragmatic variation: Dispreferred responses in Mexican and Dominican Spanish. Journal of Politeness Research, 4(1), 81–110. https://doi.org/10.1515/PR.2008.004
Félix-Brasdefer, J. C. (2009). Pragmatic variation across Spanish(es): Requesting in Mexican, Costa Rican, and Dominican Spanish. Intercultural Pragmatics, 6(4), 473–515. https://doi.org/10.1515/IPRG.2009.025
Félix-Brasdefer, J. C. (2010). Intra-lingual pragmatic variation in Mexico City and San José, Costa Rica: A focus on regional differences in female requests. Journal of Pragmatics 42(11), 2992–3011. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2010.04.015
Fraser, B. (1981). On apologizing. In F. Coulmas (Ed.), Conversational routine: Exploration in standardized communication situations and prepatterned speech (pp. 259–271). Mouton: The Hague. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110809145.259
Fu, B. (2010). Hanyu daoqianyu de yanjiu (A study on apology terms in Chinese). Waiyu Jiaoxue Yanjiu (Language Teaching and Research), 6, 70–77.
García, C. (2008). Different realizations of solidarity politeness: Comparing Venezuelan and Argentinean invitations. In K. P. Schneider & A. Barron (Eds.), Variational pragmatics: A focus on regional varieties in pluricentric languages (pp. 269–305). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/pbns.178.13gar
Gelfand, M. J., & Cai, D. A. (2004). Cultural structuring of the social context of negotiation. In M. J. Gelfand & J .M. Brett (Eds.), The handbook of negotiation and culture (pp. 238–257). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Goffman, E. (1971). Relations in public: Microstudies of the public order. New York: Basic Books.
Herbert, R. K. (1990). Sex-based differences in compliment behavior. Language in Society, 19(2), 201–224. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047404500014378
Holmes, J. (1989). Sex differences and apologies: One aspect of communicative competence. Applied Linguistics, 10(2), 194–213. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/10.2.194
Holmes, J. (1995). Women, men and politeness. London: Longman.
Jin (2012). Hanyu daoqianyu ‘duibuqi’ he ‘buhaoyisi’ de duibi shizheng yanjiu (A contrastive empirical study on apology terms ‘I’m sorry’ and ‘Excuse me’). Intelligence, 25, 158.
Johns, A., & Félix-Brasdefer, J. C. (2015). Linguistic politeness and pragmatic variation in request production in Dakar French. Journal of Politeness Research, 11(1), 131–164. https://doi.org/10.1515/pr-2015-0006
Kadar, D., Haugh, M., & Chang, W.-L. (2013). Aggression and perceived national face threats in Mainland Chinese and Taiwanese CMC discussion boards. Multilingua: Journal of Cross-Cultural and Interlanguage Communication, 32(3)343–372. https://doi.org/10.1515/multi-2013-0016
Kecskes, I. (2016). Situation-bound utterances in Chinese. East Asian Pragmatics, 1(1), 107–126. https://doi.org/10.1558/eap.v1i1.29098
Kinnison, L. (2017). Power, integrity, and mask – An attempt to disentangle the Chinese face concept. Journal of Pragmatics, 114, 32–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2017.03.015
Kubler, C. C. (1985). Influence of Southern Min on the Mandarin of Taiwan. Anthropological Linguistics, 27, 156–176.
Kuo, Y.-C. (2005). New dialect formation: The case of Taiwanese Mandarin (Doctoral dissertation). University of Essex, UK. Retrieved from Proquest Dissertations and Theses Global database (Publication No. C820816).
Lin, C. Y., Woodfield, H., & Ren, W. (2012). Compliments in Taiwan and Mainland Chinese: The influence of region and compliment topic. Journal of Pragmatics, 44(11), 1486–1502. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2012.06.012
Liu, T.-Y. (2008). A pragmatic study on sex differences in Mandarin apology strategies of Taiwanese undergraduate students (Unpublished MA thesis). National Hsinchu Teacher’s College, Taiwan.
Luo, C. (2004). Hanyu ‘daoqian’ huayu moshi (The pattern of ‘apology’ terms in Chinese). Jinan Daxue Huawen Xueyuan Xuebao (Journal of College of Chinese Language and Culture of Jinan University), 13(1), 52–58.
Nureddeen, F. A. (2008). Cross-cultural pragmatics: Apology strategies in Sudanese Arabic. Journal of Pragmatics, 40(2), 279–306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2007.11.001
Okano, E., & Brown, L. (2018). Did Becky really need to apologise? Intercultural evaluations of politeness. East Asian Pragmatics, 3(2), 151–178. https://doi.org/10.1558/eap.35178
Olshtain, E., & Cohen, A. (1983). Apology: A speech act set. In N. Wolfson & J. Elliot (Eds.), Sociolinguistics and language acquisition (pp. 18–36). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Pan, Y. (2000). Politeness in Chinese face-to-face interaction. Stamford, CT: Ablex Publishing Corporation.
Parisi, C., & Wogan, P. (2006). Compliment topics and gender. Women and Language, 29(2), 21–28.
Placencia, M. E. (2008). Requests in corner shop transactions in Ecuadorian Andean and Coastal Spanish. In K. P. Schneider & A. Barron (Eds.), Variational pragmatics: A focus on regional varieties in pluricentric languages (pp. 307–332). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/pbns.178.14pla
Qin, L. (2015). Hanyu diaoqian yanyu xingwei yanjiu (A study on apologies in Chinese). Yuwen Jiaoxue Tongxun (Bulletin of Chinese Language Teaching), 826(2), 71–74.
Ren, W. (2015). Sociopragmatic variation in Mainland and Taiwan Chinese refusals. In K. Beeching & H. Woodfield (Eds.), Researching sociopragmatic variability: Perspectives from variational, interlanguage and contrastive pragmatics (pp. 72–93). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137373953_4
Ren, W. (2018). Hanyu qingqiu yuyan xingwei de bianyi yuyongxue yanjiu (A variational pragmatic study on requests in Chinese). Waiyu Jiaoxue (Journal of Foreign Languages), 41(4), 66–75.
Schneider, K. P., & Barron, A. (Eds.). (2008). Variational pragmatics: A focus on regional varieties in pluricentric languages. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/pbns.178
Schölmberger, U. (2008). Apologizing in French French and Canadian French. In K. P. Schneider & A. Barron (Eds.), Variational pragmatics: A focus on regional varieties in pluricentric languages (pp. 333–354). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/pbns.178.15sch
Scollon, R., & Scollon, S. W. (2001). Discourse and intercultural communication. In D. Schiffrin, D. Tannen, & H. Hamilton (Eds.), The handbook of discourse analysis (pp. 538–547). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Shi, N., & Li, B. (2015). Hanyu daoqian yujing fenbu de shizheng yanjiu – Yi ‘duibuqi’, ‘buhaoyisi’, ‘baoqian’ weili (An empirical study of situational variation of Chinese apologies – The cases of duibuqi ‘I’m sorry’, buhaoyisi ‘I’m embarrassed’, and baoqian ‘I apologize’). Xiandai Yuwen (Modern Chinese), 2015(10), 109–112.
Spencer-Oatey, H., & Kadar, D. (2016). The bases of (im)politeness evaluations: Culture, the moral order and the East–West debate. East Asian Pragmatics, 1(1), 73-106. https://doi.org/10.1558/eap.v1i1.29084
Tsai, P.-C. (2000). A study of the speech act of apology in Chinese (Unpublished MA thesis). National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan.
Warga, M. (2008). Requesting in German as a pluricentric language. In K. P. Schneider & A. Barron (Eds.), Variational pragmatics: A focus on regional varieties in pluricentric languages (pp. 245–266). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/pbns.178.11war
Wolfson, N. (1984). Pretty is as pretty does: A speech act view of sex roles. Applied Linguistics, 5(3), 236–244. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/5.3.236
Wolfson, N. (1986). The bulge: A theory of speech behavior and social distance. Working Papers in Educational Linguistics, 2(1), 55–83.
Yao, C. (2008). Hanyu daoqian pinci de xingbie chayi yanjiu (Gender differences in apology frequencies in Chinese). Waiyu Yishu Jiaoyu Yanjiu (Educational Research on Foreign Languages & Arts), 2008(3), 31–34.
Yuan, Y. (2001). An inquiry into empirical pragmatics data-gathering methods: Written DCTs, oral DCTs, field notes, and natural conversations. Journal of Pragmatics, 33(2), 271–292. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-2166(00)00031-X
Ziegler, A. (2011). Generalized estimating equations. New York: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-0499-6
Published
2019-04-30
Issue
Section
Articles
How to Cite
Su, Y., & Chang, Y. (2019). Intra-lingual pragmatic variation in Mandarin Chinese apologies: Influence of region and gender. East Asian Pragmatics, 4(1), 59-86. https://doi.org/10.1558/eap.38215
