Conceptualizing Motherhood in Yoga
Pregnancy-Oriented Iyengar Yoga
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1558/rosa.28984Keywords:
Iyengar yoga, women, gender, pregnancy yoga, prenatal yogaAbstract
Prenatal yoga classes have become widespread worldwide. Still, while scientific studies examined the benefits of such practices, the conceptual and sociocultural meanings still need to be studied. This paper focuses on pregnancy-oriented Iyengar yoga, which includes pre-conception, prenatal and postnatal yoga practices developed in the Iyengar Yoga school. Interestingly, while these practices are seen as ideal for pregnant and postpartum women, they contrast with what is perceived as an ideal yoga practice. Thus, pregnancy-oriented Iyengar Yoga reveals a shift in purpose from achieving an excellent and advanced yoga practice to the health of female yoga practitioners and their children in a modern lifestyle setting. The findings of this paper are based on my doctoral research, and draw on textual analysis of over fifty relevant Iyengar yoga publications, and qualitative interviews with thirty-seven Iyengar Yoga teachers and four members of the Iyengar family between 2015 and 2019.
References
Andes, K. 1999. A Woman's Book of Balance: Finding Your Physical, Spiritual, and Emotional Center with Yoga, Strength Training, and Dance. New York: Perigee Books.
Andrews, C. 2021. 'The Great Wait: How to Stay Centered During the Third Trimester of Pregnancy.' www.yogajournal.com/yoga-101/types-of-yoga/prenatal/great-wait-third-trimester-pregnancy/
Anggraeni, N. P. D. A., Herawati, L. and Widyawati, M. N. 2019. 'The Effectiveness of Postpartum Yoga on Uterine Involution Among Postpartum Women In Indonesia.' International Journal of Nursing and Health Services 2(3): 124-34. https://doi.org/10.35654/ijnhs.v2i3.164
Babbar, S. and Shyken, J. 2016. 'Yoga in pregnancy.' Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology 59(3): 600-612. https://doi.org/10.1097/GRF.0000000000000210
Bartos, H. K. 2021. Modern Transnational Yoga: The Transmission of Posture Practice. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781000367942
Baxter, J. 2000. 'The Joys and Justice of Housework.' Sociology 34(4): 609-31. https://doi.org/10.1177/S0038038500000389
Bhattacharya, R. S. and G. J. Larson (eds). 2008. Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: India's Philosophy of Meditation. Yoga. Motilal Banarsidass.
Berila, B., M. Klein and C. J. Roberts. 2016. Yoga, the Body, and Embodied Social Change: An Intersectional Feminist Analysis. Lexington Books.
Biermann, D. 2011. 'Interview Iyengar S. Geeta.' http://honoluluyoga.com/an-interview-with-gita-iyengar/
Boybay Koyuncu, S. and E. H. Yayan. 2022. 'Effect of Postpartum Yoga on Breastfeeding Self-Efficacy and Maternal Attachment in Primiparous Mothers.' Breastfeeding Medicine 17(4): 311-17. https://doi.org/10.1089/bfm.2021.0320
Buttner, M. M., R. L. Brock, M. W. O'Hara and S. Stuart. 2015. 'Efficacy of Yoga for Depressed Postpartum Women: A Randomized Controlled Trial.' Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice 21(2): 94-100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctcp.2015.03.003
Clennell, B. 2007. The Woman's Yoga Book: Asana and Pranayama for all Phases of the Menstrual Cycle. Berkeley: Rodmell Press.
---- 2014. Yoga for Breast Care: What Every Woman Needs to Know. Berkeley, CA: Rodmell Press.
Daniels, S., I. Glorieux, J. Minnen and T. P. van Tienoven. 2012. 'More than Preparing a Meal? Concerning the Meanings of Home Cooking.' Appetite 58(3): 1050-56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2012.02.040
Dowling, P. 1982. Two conversations with BKS Iyengar. London: Paulina Publications.
Dubrovsky, A. 2020. 'In Loving Gratitude: A Tribute to Four Women Who Revolutionized Yoga.' https://yogainternational.com/article/view/in-loving-gratitude-a-tribute-to-four-women-who-revolutionized-yoga
Dumbala, S., et al. 2020. 'Effect of Yoga on Psychological Distress among Women Receiving Treatment for Infertility.' International Journal of Yoga 13(2): 115. https://doi.org/10.4103/ijoy.IJOY_34_19
Dunn, E. C. 2004. Privatizing Poland: Baby Food, Big Business, and the Remaking of Labor. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Eagly, A. H. and M. C. Johannesen-Schmidt. 2001. 'The Leadership Styles of Women and Men.' Journal of Social Issues 57(4): 781-97. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00241
El Refaye, G. 2022. 'Effect of Yoga on Postpartum Depression: A Randomized Controlled Trial.' Egyptian Journal of Physical Therapy 11(1): 21-7. https://doi.org/10.21608/ejpt.2021.80875.1044
Ezrin, S. 2023. 'Prenatal Yoga.' www.yogajournal.com/yoga-101/types-of-yoga/prenatal/
Foucault, M, 1988. 'Technologies of the Self.' In L. H. Martin, H. Gutman and P. H. Hutton (eds), Technologies of the Self: A Seminar With Michel Foucault. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Foxen, A. P. 2020. Inhaling Spirit: Harmonialism, Orientalism, and the Western Roots of Modern Yoga. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190082734.001.0001
Fraser, M. and M. Greco. 2006. The Body: A Reader. London: Routledge.
Frick, M. A., T. Forslund, M. Fransson, M. Johansson, G. Bohlin and K. C. Brocki. 2018. 'The Role of Sustained Attention, Maternal Sensitivity, and Infant Temperament in the Development of Early Self-regulation.' British Journal of Psychology 109(2): 277-98. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12266
Geer, A. 2018. 'Prenatal Yoga Practice to Relieve Pain, Enhance Mobility, and Restructure Fascia.' www.yogajournal.com/yoga-101/types-of-yoga/prenatal/prenatal-yoga-practice-to-relieve-tension-and-restructure-fascia/
Goldberg, E. 2016. The Path of Modern Yoga: The History of an Embodied Spiritual Practice. Rochester, VT: Inner Traditions.
Hinds, K. 2022. 'Yoga for Fertility: Benefits of a Focused Yoga Practice for Infertility.' www.ovulifemd.com/yoga-for-fertility/
Hoare, S. 1985. Yoga and Pregnancy. London: Unwin Paperbacks.
Hohman, M. 2021. 'Prenatal Yoga: The Perfect Pregnancy Exercise.' www.whattoexpect.com/pregnancy/prenatal-yoga/
Iyengar, B. K. S. 1966. Light on Yoga. New York: Schocken Books.
---- 1983. Light on Pranayama: Pranayama Dipika. New York: HarperCollins.
---- 1990. 70 Glorious Years of Yogacharya B. K. S. Iyengar. Bombay: Light on Yoga Research Trust.
---- 1993. Light on the Yogasutra of Patanjali. Wellingborough: Aquiarian press (Thorsons).
---- 1995. 'A Subject of the Heart.' Interview by C. Boyer, J. Hockman and A.-C. Loter. Ashtadala Yogamala 6: 45-82.
---- 2000-2008. Astadala Yogamala: Collected Works. 8 vols. New Delhi: Allied Publishers.
---- 2007. Yoga the Path to Holistic Health. London: Dorling Kindersley.
---- 2009 [1998]. 'The Yoga of Intelligence.' Interview by Conchita Labarta in Madrid. In Yoga Wisdom and Practice: 77-78. London: Penguin.
---- 2009 [1999]. 'Yoga--Head to Toe.' Interview for BBC Radio 4 by Mark Tully in Pune. In Yoga Wisdom and Practice: 34-35. London: Penguin.
Iyengar, B. K. S. and G. Iyengar. 2002. Basic Guidelines for Teachers of Yoga. Pune: Yog publishing.
Iyengar, G. 1983. Yoga: A Gem for Women. Chennai: Allied Publishers.
---- 2000. 'Interview by Rajvi H. Mehta.' Yoga Rahasya 7(1).
---- 2002. 2009. The Practice of Women During the Whole Month. UK: The Iyengar Yoga Association UK.
---- 2007. Yoga-Sadhana: Mobility in Stability. Tours, France: ATOURY.
Iyengar, G. and C. Saudek. 2008. Yoga During Pregnancy. La-Crosse: authors.
Iyengar, G., R. Keller and K. Khattab. 2010. Iyengar Yoga for Motherhood: Safe Practice for Expectant & New Mothers. New York: Sterling Publishing Company.
Jolly, S. 2000. '"Queering" Development: Exploring the Links between Same-Sex Sexualities, Gender, and Development.' Gender and Development 8(1): 78-88. https://doi.org/10.1080/741923414
Jordan, S. 1988. Yoga for Pregnancy: Ninety-Two Safe, Gentle Stretches Appropriate for Pregnant Women & New Mothers. New York: St Martin's Press.
Kirca, N. and T. Pasinlioglu. 2019. 'The Effect of Yoga on Stress Level in Infertile Women.' Perspectives in Psychiatric Care 55(2): 319-27. https://doi.org/10.1111/ppc.12352
Lasater, H. J. 2004. Yoga for Pregnancy: What Every Mom-to-be Needs to Know. Colorado: Shambhala Publications.
Leboyer, F. 1978. Inner Beauty, Inner Light. London: Collins.
Lucia, A. 2018. 'Guru Sex: Charisma, Proxemic Desire, and the Haptic Logics of the Guru-Disciple Relationship.' Journal of the American Academy of Religion 86(4): 953-88. https://doi.org/10.1093/jaarel/lfy025
Lueptow, L. B., L. Garovich-Szabo and M. B. Lueptow. 2001. 'Social Change and the Persistence of Sex Typing: 1974-1997.' Social Forces 80 (1): 1-32. https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2001.0077
Martins, R. F. and J. L. Pinto e Silva. 2014. 'Treatment of Pregnancy-Related Lumbar and Pelvic Girdle Pain by the Yoga Method: A Randomized Controlled Study.' The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 20(1): 24-31. https://doi.org/10.1089/acm.2012.0715
McGuire, M. B. 2008. Lived Religion: Faith and Practice in Everyday Life. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Mesman, J., M. H. Van Ijzendoorn and A. Sagi-Schwartz. 2016. 'Cross-cultural Patterns of Attachment.' In Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research, and Clinical Applications: 852-77. New York: Guilford Publishing.
Muzik, M., S. E. Hamilton, K. L. Rosenblum, E. Waxler and Z. Hadi. 2012. 'Mindfulness Yoga during Pregnancy for Psychiatrically at-Risk Women: Preliminary Results from a Pilot Feasibility Study.' Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice 18(4): 235-40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctcp.2012.06.006
Narendran, S., R. Nagarathna, V. Narendran, S. Gunasheela and H. R. R. Nagendra. 2005. 'Efficacy of Yoga on Pregnancy Outcome.' Journal of Alternative & Complementary Medicine 11(2): 237-44. https://doi.org/10.1089/acm.2005.11.237
Newcombe, S. 2007. 'Stretching for Health and Wellbeing: Yoga and Women in Britain, 1960-1980.' Asian Medicine 3(1): 37-63. https://doi.org/10.1163/157342107x207209
---- 2014. 'The Institutionalization of the Yoga Tradition: "Gurus" B. K. S. Iyengar and Yogini Sunita in Britain.' In M. Singleton and E. Goldberg (eds), Gurus of Modern Yoga: 147-67. New York: Oxford University Press.
---- 2019. Yoga in Britain: Stretching Spirituality and Educating Yogis. Sheffield: Equinox.
---- 2020. 'Yoga in Europe.' In Handbook of Hinduism in Europe, vol. 1: 555-87. Leiden: Brill.
---- 2008. 'A Social History of Yoga and Ayurveda in Britain, 1950-1995.' Doctoral dissertation, University of Cambridge.
Oakley, A. 2005. The Ann Oakley Reader: Gender, Women and Social Science. Bristol: Policy Press. https://doi.org/10.56687/9781447342434
O'Brian, P. 1995. Yoga for Women: A Gentler Strength. London: Thorsons.
Oron, G., E. Allnutt, T. Lackman, T. Sokal-Arnon, H. Holzer and J. Takefman. 2015. 'A Prospective Study Using Hatha Yoga for Stress Reduction among Women Waiting for IVF Treatment.' Reproductive BioMedicine Online 30(5): 542-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rbmo.2015.01.011
Owens, A. 2017. 'A Prenatal Yoga Sequence to Worry Less and Trust More.' www.yogajournal.com/yoga-101/types-of-yoga/prenatal/a-prenatal-yoga-sequence-to-worry-less-and-trust-more/
Polachek, S. and J. Xiang. 2006. 'The Gender Pay Gap: A Cross-country Analysis.' Unpublished paper, SUNY-Binghamton.
Pratinidhi, P. B. 1928. Surya Namaskars (Sun-Adoration) For Health, Efficiency & Longevity. Aundh State Press.
---- 1938. 'Value to Women': The Ten-Point Way to Health. London: J. M. Dent & Sons.
Quinn, N. and J. Mageo (eds). 2013. Attachment Reconsidered: Cultural Perspectives on a Western Theory. Berlin: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137386724
Rae, B. 2022. 'Fertility Yoga Poses to Help You Conceive.' www.bettinarae.com/10-fertility-yoga-poses-to-help-you-conceive/
Remski, M. D. 2019. Practice and All is Coming: Abuse, Cult Dynamics, and Healing in Yoga and Beyond. Christchurch, New Zealand: Embodied Wisdom Publishing.
Rogoff, B. 2003. The Cultural Nature of Human Development. New York: Oxford University Press.
Rosen, C. 2008. 'Discourse about the Woman's Body: An Ethnography of a 'Yoga for Women' Course.' Thesis, University of Haifa, Israel.
Saudek, C. and G. Iyengar. 2008. Yoga During Pregnancy. Self-published at La-Crosse.
Schneider McClure, V. 1995. A Woman's Guide to Tantra Yoga. Novato, CA: New World Library.
Singleton, M. 2010. Yoga Body: The Origins of Modern Posture Practice. New York: Oxford University Press.
Sivananda, S. 1939. Yogic Home Exercises: Easy Course of Physical Culture for Modern Men and Women. Bombay: Taraporevala.
Sparrowe, L. and P. Walden. 2002. The Woman's Book of Yoga and Health: A Lifelong Guide to Wellness. Colorado: Shambala Publications.
Steinberg, L. 2006. Geeta Iyengar's Guide to a Woman's Yoga Practice. Urbana, IL: Parvati Productions.
Sundaram, S. 1929. Yogic Physical Culture or the Secret of Happiness. Charlottesville, VA: Brahma-charya Publishing House.
Taylor, L. 1993. Woman's Book of Yoga: A Journal for Health and Self-Discovery. San Francisco, CA: Tuttle Publishing.
Treacy, K. 2016. 'Prenatal Yoga: 5 Psoas-Releasing Poses to Relieve Low Back Pain.' www.yogajournal.com/yoga-101/types-of-yoga/prenatal/prenatal-yoga-5-psoas-releasing-poses-relieve-low-back-pain/
---- 2017. '6 Prenatal Yoga Poses to Strengthen the Pelvic Floor & Posture During Pregnancy.' www.yogajournal.com/yoga-101/types-of-yoga/prenatal/prenatal-yoga-strengthen-pelvic-floor-posture/
Vicedo, M. 2017. 'Putting Attachment in its Place: Disciplinary and Cultural Contexts.' European Journal of Developmental Psychology 14(6): 684-99. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2017.1289838
WebMD Editorial Contributors. 2021. 'Benefits of Postpartum Yoga.' https://www.webmd.com/baby/benefits-postpartum-yoga
Wittich, A. 2017. 'Iyengar Yoga for Women: A Practicing Tradition in the Making.' Religions of South Asia 11(2-3): 231-53. https://doi.org/10.1558/rosa.37025
---- 2020. 'Her Yoga: Women-Oriented Iyengar Yoga--Between Innovation and Tradition.' PhD dissertation, Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
---- 2022. 'Harnessing authenticity in Iyengar Yoga: Legitimizing and Romanticizing Women-Oriented Iyengar Yoga through Sanskrit Texts.' Zeitschrift fur Internationale Strafrechtsdogmatik 39. ZIS, University of Heidelberg. Germany.
---- 2024. 'Yoga's Red Tent: Menstrual-Oriented Iyengar Yoga Practices.' In U. Husken, A. Wittich and N. Spina (eds), Gendered Agency in Transcultural Hinduism and Buddhism. Abingdon: Routledge.
