Raising Rajas in Hathayoga and Beyond
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1558/rosa.19012Keywords:
Haṭhayoga, menstruation, rajas, voluntary amenorrhea, yogic bodyAbstract
This article discusses the concept of rajas in the Hathayoga corpus and compares it with material in Ayurveda and Daoism. Rajas is the red blood of menstruation, female sexual fluid, and one aspect of a gendered binary with bindu or semen. In texts deriving from a male celibate context, rajas occurs within male practitioners without the interaction of a woman. In some paradigms of the yogic body, bindu is drawn upwards and preserved alongside rajas using the technique of vajrolimudra, conferring success (siddhi) and immortality (amrta). Women appear infrequently in Hatha texts, but those who preserve their rajas are said to be yoginis. Rajas in Ayurveda functions in embryology as a vital essence, thus explaining its power in Hathayoga. Daoist materials are more detailed and cohesive than Hatha, and female inner alchemy (Nüdan) describes a practice of voluntary amenorrhea, ‘slaying the crimson dragon’—the halting of menstruation. The Daoist model enables an interpretation of the scant Hatha sources to suggest that yoginis who preserve their rajas potentially halt their periods.
References
Primary Sources
Amanaska. Jason Eric George Birch, ‘The Amanaska: King of All Yogas: A Critical Edition and Annotated Translation with a Monographic Introduction’. PhD thesis, University of Oxford, 2013.
Amrtasiddhi. See Mallinson and Szántó (forthcoming).
Brhadaranyaka Upanisad. Sansknet project. ‘Brhadaranyaka-Upanisad, Adhy. 1’. Gretil. Accessed 25 October 2019. http://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/1_sanskr/1_veda/4_upa/brupsb1u.htm.
Brhatkhecariprakasa. See Mallinson (2013a): 15–16.
Carakasamhita: Agnivesa’s Treatise Refined and Annotated by Caraka and Redacted by Drdhabala, trans. P. V. Sharma, vol. 2, 2nd edn. Varanasi: Chaukhambha Orientalia, 1992.
Dattatreyayogasastra. See Mallinson (2013b).
Goraksasataka. Etext input by James Mallinson. Nowotny edition.
Goraksayogasastra. See Liersch (2018).
Hathabhyasapaddhati. Etext input by James Mallinson. Manuscript 46/440 held at the Bharat Itihas Sansodhak Mandal, Pune (entitled Asanayogah in the catalogue).
Hathasanketacandrika. Etext input by Mark Singleton. Manuscript from Government of Mysore Library, R3239.
Hathapradipika: Hathayogapradipika of Svatmarama with the Commentary Jyotsna of Brahmananda, ed. K. Kunjunni Raja. Madras: Adyar Library and Research Centre, 1972. For Kaivalyadhama edn (with different verse numbering), see Digambaraji and Kokaje (1998).
Jyotsna. See Raja (1972).
Malinivijayottaratantra. Somadeva Vasudeva, The Yoga of Malinivijayottaratantra: Chapters 1-4, 7-11, 11-17. Pondicherry: Institut Français de Pondichéry, 2004.
Sivasamhita. See Mallinson (2013a: 4–6).
Susrutasamhita. Etext input by T. Yamashita and Y. Muroya. SARIT.
Vajroliyoga. See Mallinson (2013a: 28–30).
Vivekamartanda. See Mallinson (2013a: 2).
Yogabija. Ed. Ramlal Srivastav. Gorakhpur: Gorakhnath Mandir, 1982. Transcribed by James Mallinson.
Yogayajñavalkya. Ed. Prahlad C. Divanji. Bombay: Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1954.
Secondary Sources
Aktor, Mikael. 2016. ‘The Candali as Sakti’. In B. W. Olesen (ed.), Goddess traditions in Tantric Hinduism: History, Practice and Doctrine: 96–108. Routledge Studies in Tantric Traditions. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315742120
Bharati, Agehananda and Wolfgang Laade. 1975. The Tantric Tradition. London: Rider.
Birch, Jason. 2013. ‘The Amanaska: King of All Yogas: A Critical Edition and Annotated Translation with a Monographic Introduction.’ PhD thesis, University of Oxford.
—— 2014. ‘Rajayoga: The Reincarnations of the King of All Yogas.’ International Journal of Hindu Studies 17 (3): 399–442. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11407-014-9146-x
—— 2018a. ‘Premodern Yoga Traditions and Ayurveda.’ History of Science in South Asia 6: 1–83. https://doi.org/10.18732/hssa.v6i0.25
—— 2018b. ‘The Proliferation of Asana-s in Late-Mediaeval Yoga Texts.’ In K. Baier, P. Maas and K. Preisendanz (eds), Yoga in Transformation: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives: 103–79. Göttingen: Vienna University Press. https://doi.org/10.14220/9783737008624.101
—— 2019. ‘The Amaraughaprabodha: New Evidence on the Manuscript Transmission of an Early Work on Hatha- and Rajayoga.’ Journal of Indian Philosophy 47 (5): 947–77. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10781-019-09401-5
Birch, Jason and James Mallinson (eds). Forthcoming. Yogabija: Critical Edition.
Birch, Jason and Mark Singleton. 2019. ‘The Yoga of the Hathabhyasapaddhati: Hathayoga on the Cusp of Modernity.’ Journal of Yoga Studies 2: 3–70. https://doi.org/10.34000/joys.2019.v2.002
Bokenkamp, Stephen R. 1997. Early Daoist Scriptures. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Bühnemann, Gudrun. 2007. Eighty-Four Asanas in Yoga: A Survey of Traditions. New Delhi: D. K. Printworld.
Butler, Judith. 1990. Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. New York and London: Routledge.
Cerulli, Anthony Michael. 2010. ‘Ayurveda.’ In K. A. Jacobsen, H. Basu, A. Malinar and V. Narayanan (eds), Brill’s Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Volume II: Texts, Rituals, Arts, and Concepts: 267–80. Leiden: Brill. https://doi.org/10.1080/0048721x.2011.592091
Das, Rahul Peter. 1992. ‘Problematic Aspects of the Sexual Rituals of the Bauls of Bengal.’ Journal of the American Oriental Society 112 (3): 388–432. https://doi.org/10.2307/603078
—— 2003. The Origin of The Life of a Human Being: Conception and the Female According to Ancient Indian Medical and Sexological Literature. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.
Despeux, Catherine. 2000. ‘Women in Daoism.’ In L. Kohn (ed.), Daoism Handbook: 384–412. Leiden: Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004391840_015
Digambaraji, Swami and Pt. Raghunatha Shastri Kokaje (eds). 1998. Hathapradipika, 2nd edn. Lonavla: Kaivalyadhama.
Douglas, Mary. 1966. Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Dupuche, John R. 2003. Abhinavagupta: The Kula Ritual, as Elaborated in Chapter 29 of the Tantraloka. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.
Eskildsen, Stephen. 2004. The Teachings and Practices of the Early Quanzhen Taoist Masters. Albany, NY: State University of New York.
Gharote, M. L. and G. K. Pai (eds). 2005. Siddhasiddhantapaddhatih: A Treatise on the Natha Philosophy by Goraksanatha. Lonavla: Lonavla Yoga Institute.
Gonda, Jan. 1975. Vedic Literature: Samhitas and Brahmanas. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
Hanssen, Kristin. 2002. ‘Ingesting Menstrual Blood: Notions of Health and Bodily Fluids in Bengal.’ Ethnology 41 (4): 365–79. https://doi.org/10.2307/4153014
—— 2006. ‘The True River Ganges: Tara’s Begging Practices.’ In M. Khandelwal, S. L. Hausner and A. Gold (eds), Women’s Renunciation in South Asia: Nuns, Yoginis, Saints, and Singers: 95–138. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-137-10485-4_4
Hatley, Shaman. 2016. ‘Erotic Asceticism: The Razor’s Edge Observance (Asidharavrata) and the Early History of Tantric Coital Ritual.’ Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 79 (2): 329–45. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0041977x16000069
Hausner, Sondra L. 2013. ‘The Category of the Yogini as a Gendered Practitioner.’ In I. Keul (ed.), ‘Yogini’ in South Asia: Interdisciplinary Approaches: 32–43. Abingdon: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203361924
Jaini, Padmanabh S. 1991. Gender and Salvation: Jaina Debates on the Spiritual Liberation of Women. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Kohn, Livia. 2008. ‘Sexual Control and Daoist Cultivation.’ In C. Olsen (ed.), Celibacy and Religious Traditions: 241–64. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195306316.003.0013
Komjathy, Louis. 2007. Cultivating Perfection: Mysticism and Self-Transformation in Early Quanzhen Daoism. Leiden: Brill.
—— 2013a. The Daoist Tradition: An Introduction. London: Bloomsbury.
—— 2013b. The Way of Complete Perfection: A Quanzhen Daoist Anthology. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
—— 2014. ‘Sun Buer: Early Quanzhen Matriarch and the Beginnings of Female Alchemy.’ Nan Nü 16 (2): 171–238. https://doi.org/10.1163/15685268-00162p01
Kragh, Ulrich Timme. 2018. ‘Chronotopic Narratives of Seven Gurus and Eleven Texts: A Medieval Buddhist Community of Female Tantrikas in the Swat Valley of Pakistan.’ Cracow Indological Studies 20 (2): 1–26. https://doi.org/10.12797/cis.20.2018.02.02
Kristeva, Julia. 1984. Powers of Horror: An Essay on Abjection. New York: Columbia University Press.
Leslie, Julia. 1996. ‘Menstruation Myths.’ In Julia Leslie (ed.), Myth and Mythmaking: Continuous Evolution in Indian Tradition: 87–105. Richmond: Curzon. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0041977x00016104
Liersch, Nils Jacob. 2018. ‘The Goraksayogasastra: An Early Text of Hathayoga.’ MA thesis, Philipps University, Marburg.
Mallinson, James. 2007. The Khecarividya of Adinatha: A Critical Edition and Annotated Translation of an Early Text of Hathayoga. London: Routledge.
—— 2013a. ‘Textual Materials for the Study of Vajrolimudra.’ Presented at the Yoga in Transformation Conference, University of Vienna. https://soas.academia.edu/JamesMallinson
—— 2013b. ‘Translation of the Dattatreyayogasastra, the Earliest Text to Teach Hathayoga.’ https://soas.academia.edu/JamesMallinson
—— 2014. ‘The Yogis’ Latest Trick.’ Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society: 24 (1): 165–80.
—— 2018. ‘Yoga and Sex: What Is the Purpose of Vajrolimudra’ In K. Baier, P. Maas and K. Preisendanz (eds), Yoga in Transformation: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives: 183–222. Göttingen: Vienna University Press. https://doi.org/10.14220/9783737008624.181
Mallinson, James and Mark Singleton. 2017. Roots of Yoga. London: Penguin.
Mallinson, James and Péter-Dániel Szántó (eds). Forthcoming. ‘The Amrtasiddhi: Hathayoga’s Tantric Buddhist Source Text.’
Marriott, McKim. 1990. India through Hindu Categories. New Delhi: Sage Publications.
Monier-Williams, Monier. 1899. Monier Williams Online Dictionary. 2nd edn.
O’Flaherty, Wendy Doniger. 1980. Women, Androgynes, and Other Mythical Beasts. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Onians, Isabelle. 2002. ‘Tantric Buddhist Apologetics, or Antinomianism as a Norm.’ PhD thesis, University of Oxford.
Pregadio, Fabrizio. 2019. Taoist Internal Alchemy: An Anthology of Neidan Texts. Mountain View, CA: Golden Elixir Press.
Pregadio, Fabrizio and Skar Lowell. 2000. ‘Inner Alchemy (Neidan).’ In L. Kohn (ed.), Daoism Handbook: 464–97. Leiden: Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004391840_017
Raja, K. Kunjunni (ed.). 1972. Hathayogapradipika of Svatmarama with the Commentary Jyotsna of Brahmananda. Madras: Adyar Library and Research Centre.
Raz, Gil. 2009. The Emergence of Daoism: Creation of Tradition. London: Routledge.
Samuel, Geoffrey. 2008. The Origins of Yoga and Tantra: Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Sanderson, Alexis. 1985. ‘Purity and Power among the Brahmins of Kashmir.’ In M. Carrithers, S. Collins and S. Lukes (eds), The Category of the Person: Anthropology, Philosophy, History: 190–216. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1177/001946468602300405
—— 2018. ‘The Sakta Transformation of Saivism.’ Keynote lecture handout, 17th World Sanskrit Conference, Vancouver.
Schaeffer, Kurtis R. 2002. ‘The Attainment of Immortality: From Nathas in India to Buddhists in Tibet.’ Journal of Indian Philosophy 30 (6): 515–33.
Schoterman, Jan A. 1980. The Yonitantra. New Delhi: Manohar.
Singleton, Mark. 2010. Yoga Body: The Origins of Modern Posture Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Slaje, Walter. 1995. ‘Rtú-, Rtv(i)ya-, Artavá-: Weibliche “Fertilität” im Denken vedischer Inder.’ Journal of the European Ayurvedic Society 4: 109–48.
Valussi, Elena. 2003. ‘Beheading the Red Dragon: A History of Female Alchemy in China.’ PhD thesis, SOAS, University of London.
Vasudeva, Somadeva. 2004. The Yoga of Malinivijayottaratantra: Chapters 1–4, 7–11, 11–17. Pondicherry: Institut Français de Pondichéry.
White, David Gordon. 1996. The Alchemical Body: Siddha Traditions in Medieval India. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
—— 2006. Kiss of the Yogini: ‘Tantric Sex’ in Its South Asian Contexts. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Wujastyk, Dagmar. 2018. ‘Healthcare and Longevity Practices in Yoga, Ayurveda and Rasasastra.’ Presented at the conference entitled ‘Embodied Philosophy: Yoga Reconsidered’.
Wujastyk, Dominik. 2003. The Roots of Ayurveda: Selections from Sanskrit Medical Writings. London: Penguin Books.
—— 2004. ‘Agni and Soma: A Universal Classification.’ Studia Asiatica. International Journal for Asian Studies 4–5: 347–69.
Zubko, Katherine. 2010. ‘Body.’ In K. A. Jacobsen, H. Basu, A. Malinar and V. Narayanan (eds), Brill’s Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Volume II: Texts, Rituals, Arts, and Concepts: 720–24. Leiden: Brill. https://doi.org/10.1080/0048721x.2011.592091
