A Room of One’s Own
Autistic Imagination as a Stage for Parasocial Interaction and Social Learning
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1558/jcsr.37518Keywords:
autism, imagination, cognition, parasocial relations, religion, multimodal integration, copingAbstract
This article examines the role and function of imagination and parasocial(fiction-based) relations among autistic individuals. In interviews,seventeen high functioning, autistic young adults describe how theyfrequently absorb into daydreams, fantasy literature and multiplayeronline roleplaying games. These findings diverge from previous cognitiveresearch which suggests that imagination is limited in autisticindividuals; a conclusion which is also challenged by scholars incritical autism research. It is suggested that these opposed scholarlyviews can be bridged analytically and methodologically by separatinginterpersonal and intrapersonal imagination, of which only the former,social aspect is affected across the whole autism spectrum. Theresults indicate that parasocial relations are used both for pleasure andto cope with adversities, and that imaginary realms serve as optimalautistic spaces for simulating and practicing social interaction. Thearticle moreover provides a comparative discussion on parasocial andsupernatural relations.
References
American Psychiatric Association 2013. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596
Asprem, E. 2016. “Reverse-Engineering ‘Esotericism’: How to Prepare a Complex Cultural Concept for the Cognitive Science of Religion.” Religion 46(2): 158–185. https://doi.org/10.1080/0048721x.2015.1072589
Attwood, T. 2006. “Asperger’s Syndrome and Problems Related to Stress.” In Stress and Coping in Autism, edited by M. Grace Baron, J. Groden, G. Groden and L. P. Lipsitt, 351–370. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/med:psych/9780195182262.003.0014
Baron-Cohen, S. 1985. Social Cognition and Pretend Play in Autism. London: University of London.
———. 2009. “Autism: The Empathising-Systemising (E-S) Theory.” Annals of the New York Academy of Science 56(1): 68–80.
Baron-Cohen, S., R. A. Hoekstra, R. Knickmeyer and S. Wheelwright. 2006. “The Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) – Adolescent Version.” Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 36(3): 343–350. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0073-6
Barnes, J. L. 2012. “Fiction, Imagination, and Social Cognition: Insight from Autism.” Poetics 40: 299–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.poetic.2012.05.001
Barrett, J. 2004. Why Would Anyone Believe in God? Lanham, MD: AltaMira.
Bauman, M. L. 2011. “Foreword.” In How Can I Speak If My Lips Don’t Move? Inside My Autistic Mind, by T. R. Mukhopadhyay. New York: Arcade.
Black, D. O. N. Rosenthal and P. Walla. 2015. “Transcendental Meditation for Autism Spectrum Disorders? A Perspective.” Cogent Psychology 2(1): 1071028. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311908.2015.1071028
Boyer, P. 1997. “Distinctions between Magic, Reality, Religion and Fiction.” Child Development 68(6): 1012–1014. https://doi.org/10.2307/1132283
———. 2007. “Specialized Inference Engines as Precursors of Creative Imagination?” In Imaginative Minds, edited by I. Roth, 239–258. London: British Academy. https://doi.org/10.5871/bacad/9780197264195.003.0011
Bullivant, S., M. Farias, J. Lanman and L. Lee. 2019. Understanding Unbelief: Atheists and Agnostics around the World. Interim Findings from 2019 Research in Brazil, China, Denmark, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Twickenham: St Mary’s University.
Clark, S. L. (2003). From Angels to Aliens: Teenagers, Media and the Supernatural. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Craig, J. and S. Baron-Cohen. 1999. “Creativity and Imagination in Autism and Asperger Syndrome.” Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 29(4): 319–326. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1022163403479
Craig, J., S. Baron-Cohen and F. Scott. 2001. “Drawing Ability in Autism: A Window into the Imagination.” Israel Journal of Psychiatry 38: 242–253.
Crane, L., Goddard L. and Pring, L. 2009. “Sensory Processing in Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorders.” Autism 13(3): 215-228. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361309103794
Crespi, B., E. Leach, N. Dinsdale, M. Mokkonen and P. Hurd. 2016. “Imagination in Human Social Cognition, Autism, and Psychotic-Affective Conditions.” Cognition 150: 181–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2016.02.001
Dautenhahn, K. and I. Werry. 2004. “Towards Interactive Robots in Autism Therapy: Background, Motivation and Challenges.” Pragmatics & Cognition 12(1): 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1075/pc.12.1.03dau
Davidson, J. and M. Orsini. 2013. “The Shifting Horizons of Autism Online.” In Worlds of Autism: Across the Spectrum of Neurological Difference, edited by J. Davidson and M. Orsini, 285–303. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. https://doi.org/10.5749/minnesota/9780816688883.003.0013
Davis, M. H. 1983. “Measuring Individual Differences in Empathy: Evidence for a Multidimensional Approach.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 44(1): 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113
Davis, P. E., H. Simon, E. Meins and D. L. Robins. 2018. “Imaginary Companions in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder.” Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 48(8): 2790–2799. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-018-3540-y
Derrick, J. L., S. Gabriel and K. Hugenberg. 2009. “Social Surrogacy: How Favored Television Programs Provide the Experience of Belonging.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 45(2): 352–362. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2008.12.003
Downey, G. and D. H. Lende. 2012. “Neuroanthropology and the Encultured Brain.” In Encultured Brain: An Introduction to Neuroanthropology, edited by D. H. Lende and G. Downey, 23–65. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9219.001.0001
Faivre, A. 2010. Western Esotericism: A Concise History. New York: State University of New York Press.
Loftis, S.F. (2015). Imagining Autism: Fiction and Stereotypes on the Spectrum. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Frith, U. 1991. “Asperger and His Syndrome.” In Autism and Asperger Syndrome, edited by U. Frith, 1–36. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511526770.001
Frith, C. D. and U. Frith. 2006. “How We Predict What Other People Are Going to Do.” Brain Research 1079(1): 36–46.
Gardner, W. L. and M. L. Knowles. 2007. “Love Makes You Real: Favorite Television Characters Are Perceived as ‘Real’ in a Social Facilitation Paradigm.” Social Cognition 26(2): 156–168. https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.2008.26.2.156
Gervais, W. M. 2013. “Perceiving Minds and Gods: How Mind Perception Enables, Constrains, and Is Triggered by Belief in Gods.” Perspectives on Psychological Science 8(4): 380–394. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691613489836
Ghaziuddin M., N. Ghaziuddin and J. Greden. 2002. “Depression in Persons with Autism: Implications for Research and Clinical Care.” Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 32(4): 299–306. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1016330802348
Giles, D. C. 2012. “Parasocial Relationships: Current Directions in Theory and Method.” In The Social Use of Media: Cultural and Social Scientific Perspectives on Audience Research, edited by H. Bilandzic, G. Patriarche and P. J. Traudt, 161–176. Bristol: Intellect. https://doi.org/10.7146/mediekultur.v30i56.16740
Gleason, T. R., Theran, S. A. and Newberg, E. M. 2017. “Parasocial Interactions and Relationships in Early Adolescence.” Frontiers in Psychology 8, Article 255. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00255
Gottschall, J. 2012. The Storytelling Animal: How Stories Make Us Human. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. https://doi.org/10.17851/2317-2096.24.1.227-230
Gould, J. 2016 (April). Autism among Girls and Women [Audio/Video]. Retrieved from https://urskola.se/Produkter/195644-UR-Samtiden-Fokus-pa-autism-Autism-bland-flickor-och-kvinnor
Granqvist, P. 2020. Attachment in Religion and Spirituality: A Wider View. New York: Guilford.
Hacking, I. 2010. “Autism Fiction: A Mirror of an Internet Decade?” University of Toronto Quarterly 79(2): 632–655. https://doi.org/10.3138/utq.79.2.632
Hartley, D. 2018. “Wired Differently”: Posthuman Technologies and the Autistic Subject. Unpublished conference paper, North West Consortium Doctoral Training Partnership (NWCDTP) conference, University of Salford.
Hay, D. F., A. Payne and A. Chadwick. 2004. “Peer Relations in Childhood.” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 45(1): 84–108.
Hayden, E. C. 2016 (April). “Rising Star: Somer Bishop Fine-Tunes Autism Diagnosis.” Spectrum News. Retrieved from https://www.spectrumnews.org/news/rising-star-somer-bishop-fine-tunes-autism-diagnosis/
Horder, J., C. E. Wilson, M. A. Mendez and D. G. Murphy. 2014. “Autistic Traits and Abnormal Sensory Experiences in Adults.” Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorder 44(6): 1461–1469.
Jarrold, C. 2003. “A Review of Research into Pretend Play in Autism.” Autism 7(4): 379–390. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361303007004004
King, M. and P. Bearman. 2009. “Diagnostic Change and the Increased Prevalence of Autism.” International Journal of Epidemiology 38(5): 1224–1234. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyp261
Knowles, M. L. 2007. The nature of parasocial relationships. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 68(3-B), 1982.
Loeppky S. 2006. Gaming and Students with Asperger’s Syndrome: A Literature Review. Retrieved from http://etad.usask.ca/802papers/loeppky/
London, E. B. 2014. “Categorical Diagnosis: A Fatal Flaw for Autism Research?” Trends in Neurosciences 37(12): 683–686. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2014.10.003
Luhrmann, T. M. 2012. When God Talks Back: Understanding the American Evangelical Relationship with God. New York: Vintage.
———. 2018. “The Faith Frame: Or, Belief Is Easy, Faith Is Hard.” Contemporary Pragmatism 15(3): 302–318. https://doi.org/10.1163/18758185-01503003
Marlaire, C. L. and D. M. Maynard. 1990. “Standardized Testing as an Interactional Phenomenon.” Sociology of Education 63(2): 83–101. https://doi.org/10.2307/2112856
Matthews, M. 2017. A Rhetorical Model of Autism: A Pop Culture Personification of Masculinity in Crisis. Doctoral dissertation. Faculty of Humanities. Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario.
Mattingly, C. 2017. “Autism and the Ethics of Care: A Phenomenological Investigation into the Contagion of Nothing.” Ethos 45(2): 250–270. https://doi.org/10.1111/etho.12164
Mazurek, M. O. 2014. “Loneliness, Friendship, and Well-being in Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorders.” Autism 18(3): 223–232. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361312474121
McCutcheon, R. T., ed. 1999. The Insider/Outsider Problem in the Study of Religion. London: Cassell.
McGrath, D. J. 2016. Autism, Systemizing and Empathy: Some Inside-Out Comments. 2(4): 179–190. https://doi.org/10.1108/aia-05-2016-0013
McGrath, D. J. 2017. Naming Adult Autism - Culture, Science, Identity. Rowman & Littlefield.
McGeer, V. 2004. “Autistic Self-Awareness.” Philosophy, Psychiatry & Psychology 11(3): 235–251. https://doi.org/10.1353/ppp.2004.0066
Oatley, K. 2016. “Fiction: Simulation of Social Worlds.” Trends in Cognitive Science 20(8): 618–628. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.06.002
Orsmond, G. I., P. T. Shattuck, B. P. Cooper, P. R. Sterzing and K. A. Anderson. 2013. “Social Participation among Young Adults with an Autism Spectrum Disorder.” Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorder 43(11): 2710–2719. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-013-1833-8
Partridge, C. H. 2004–2005. The Re-Enchantment of the West: Alternative Spiritualities, Sacralization, Popular Culture, and Occulture (Volumes 1–2). London: T & T Clark. https://doi.org/10.5840/asrr20101221
Peirce, C. S. 1982. The Writings of Charles S. Peirce: A Chronological Edition. Volumes 1–6. Peirce Edition Project. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt200606d
Quirici, M. 2015. “Geniuses without Imagination: Discourses of Autism, Ability, and Achievement.” Journal of Literary & Cultural Disability Studies 9(1): 71–88. https://doi.org/10.3828/jlcds.2015.5
Rogers, P. 2014. “Art on the Spectrum.” Spectrum News. Retrieved from: https://www.spectrumnews.org/features/special-report/art-on-the-spectrum/
Roth, I. 2007. “Autism and the Imaginative Mind.” In Imaginative Minds, edited by I. Roth, 277–306. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.5871/bacad/9780197264195.001.0001
———. 2018. “Autism, Creativity and Aesthetics.” Qualitative Research in Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1080/14780887.2018.1442763
Rutherford, M. and S. Rogers. 2003. “Cognitive Underpinnings of Pretend Play in Autism.” Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 33(3): 289–302. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1024406601334
Savarese E. T. and R. J. Savarese. 2010. “‘The Superior Half of Speaking’: An Introduction.” Disability Studies Quarterly 30(1). Retrieved from http://dsq-sds.org/article/view/1062/1230
Scott, F. J. 2013. “The Development of Imagination in Children in Autism.” In The Oxford Handbook of the Development of Imagination, edited by M. Taylor, 499–515. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195395761.013.0032
Scott, F. and S. Baron-Cohen. 1996. “Imagining Real and Unreal Things: Evidence of a Dissociation in Autism.” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 8(4): 371–382. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn.1996.8.4.371
Sinclair, J. 2010. “Cultural Commentary: Being Autistic Together.” Disability Studies Quarterly 30(1). https://doi.org/10.18061/dsq.v30i1.1075
Smith, J. A., M. Jarman and M. Osborn. 1999. “Doing Interpretational Phenomenological Analysis.” In Qualitative Health Psychology: Theories and Methods, edited by M. Murray & K. Chamberlain, 218–241. London: Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446217870.n14
Solomon, O. 2015. “‘But – He’ll Fall!’: Children with Autism, Interspecies Intersubjectivity, and the Problem of ‘Being Social’.” Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry, 39(2): 323–344. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11013-015-9446-7
Squire K. and H. Jenkins. 2003. “Harnessing the Power of Games in Education.” Insight 3: 7–31.
Suskind, R. 2014. Life, Animated: A Story of Sidekicks, Heroes, and Autism. New York: Kingswell.
Suskind R., J. Gabrieli and K. Pelphrey. 2017. Roundtable: Experts debate promise of “affinities” in autism. https://www.spectrumnews.org/features/multimedia/webinars/webinar-experts-debate-promise-affinities-autism/
Swedish Research Council. 2011. Good Research Practice. Stockholm: Vetenskapsrådet.
Tager-Flusberg, H. 1999. “A Psychological Approach to Understanding the Social and Language Impairments in Autism.” International Review of Psychiatry 11(4): 325–334. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540269974203
———. 2007. “Evaluating the Theory-of-Mind Hypothesis of Autism.” Current Directions on Psychological Science 16(6): 311–315.
Taves, A. 2009. Religious Experience Reconsidered: A Building-Block Approach to the Study of Religion and Other Special Things. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400830978
Utriainen, T. 2016. “Re-enchanting Body and Religion in a Secular Society: Touch of an Angel.” In The Relational Dynamics of Enchantment and Sacralization: Changing the Terms of the Religion versus Secularity Debate, edited by P. Ingman, T. Utriainen, T. Hovi, M. Broo, 125–143. Sheffield: Equinox. https://doi.org/10.1558/jasr.36088
Visuri, I. 2018. “Rethinking Autism, Theism & Atheism: Bodiless Agents and Imaginary Realities.” Archive for the Psychology of Religion 40(1): 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1163/15736121-12341348
———. 2019a. “Sensory Supernatural Experiences in Autism.” Religion, Brain & Behavior. https://doi.org/10.1080/2153599X.2018.1548374
———. 2019b. Varieties of Supernatural Experience: The Case of High-Functioning Autism. Doctoral Dissertation. Department of the Study of Religions. Södertörn University.
Wallace, M. T. 2012. “The Impact of Multisensory Alterations in Human Developmental Disabilities and Disease: The Tip of an Iceberg?” In The New Handbook of Multisensory Processing, edited by B. E. Stein, 645–655. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press.
Wing, L. and J. Gould. 1979. “Severe Impairments of Social Interaction and Associated Abnormalities in Children: Epidemiology and Classification.” Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 9(1): 11–29. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01531288
Published
Issue
Section
License
Equinox Publishing Ltd.