Healing Those Who Need Healing
How Religious Practice Interacts with Personality to Affect Social Belonging
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1558/jcsr.v1i1.29Keywords:
cognition, neuroticism, non-linearity personality, practice, religion, social cognitionAbstract
Religion affects social cognition but does personality matter? We extracted information about church attendance and personality from a representative national survey (n= 1,483 New Zealand Christians). We found that frequency of church attendance affects felt belongingness but this relationship depends on levels of neuroticism. Christians who scored low in neuroticism experienced similar levels of felt belongingness, regardless of church attendance. Christians who scored high in neuroticism experienced the greatest social belonging, through frequent religious practice. Modelling these interactions revealed that those high in neuroticism would need to attend church 17.15 times each month to experience the felt belongingness of those low in neuroticism who did not attend church. Rates of religious attendance affect social cognition, but not for all Christians equally. Neuroticism matters. Those who wish to promote religion for social belonging would be wise to consider personality differences.
References
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Bulbulia, J. and A. Mahoney. 2008. “Religious solidarity: The hand grenade experiment.” Journal of Cognition and Culture 8: 295–320. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156853708X358191
Baumeister, R. and M. Leary. 1995. “The need to belong: desire for interpersonal attachments.” Psychological Bulletin 117(3): 497–529. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497
Christ, O., C. G. Sibley, and U. Wagner. 2012. “Multilevel modeling in personality and social psychology” . In The Oxford Handbook of Personality and Social Psychology, edited by K. Deaux and M. Snyder, 239–260. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cutrona, C. E. and D. W. Russell. 1987. “The provisions of social relationships and adaptation to stress.” Advances in Personal Relationships 1: 37–67.
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Eysenck, M. W. 1998. “Personality and the psychology of religion.” Mental Health, Religion and Culture 1(1): 11–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13674679808406493
Fischer, R., R. Callander, P. Reddish and J. Bulbulia. “A field investigation of the effects of sacred values and synchronous movements in nine naturally occurring rituals.” under review.
Francis, L. J. and C. J. Jackson. 2003. “Eysenck’s dimensional model of personality and religion: Are religious people more neurotic?” Mental Health, Religion and Culture 6(1): 87–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1367467031000086279
Geertz, A. W. 2010. “Brain, body and culture: A biocultural theory of religion.” Method and Theory in the Study of Religion 22(4): 304–321. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157006810X531094
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Gervais, W., A. Willard, A. Norenzayan and J. Henrich. 2011. “The cultural transmission of faith: Why natural intuitions and memory biases are necessary, but insufficient, to explain religious belief.” Religion 41(3): 389–410. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0048721X.2011.604510
Hall, D. E. 2006. “Religious attendance: More cost-effective than Lipitor?” Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine 19: 103–109. http://dx.doi.org/10.3122/jabfm.19.2.103
Hoverd, W. J., Q. Atkinson and C. G. Sibley. 2012. “Group size and the trajectory of religious identification.” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 51(2): 286–303. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5906.2012.01643.x
Johnson, D. 2005. “God’s punishment and public goods: A test of the supernatural punishment hypothesis in 186 world cultures.” Human Nature 16(4): 410–446. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12110-005-1017-0
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Kirkpatrick, L. 1999. “Toward an evolutionary psychology of religion and personality.” Journal of Personality 67: 921–951. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-6494.00078
Koenig, H. G., J. C. Hays, L. K. George, D. G. Blazer D. B. Larson and L. R. Landerman. 1997. “Modelling the cross-sectional relationships between religion, physical health, social support, and depressive symptoms.” American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 5: 131–144.
Koenig, H. G., J. C. Hays, D. B. Larson, L. K. George, H. J. Cohen, M. E. McCullough, et al. 1999. “Does religious attendance prolong survival? A 6-year follow-up study of 3, 968 older adults.” Journal of Gerontology A Biological Sciences Medical Sciences 54: 370–376. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gerona/54.7.M370
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Luhrmann, T. 2005. “The art of hearing God: absorption, dissociation, and contemporary American spirituality.” Spiritus 5(2): 133–157. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/scs.2006.0014
Luhrmann, T.. 2012. When God talks Back: Understanding the American Evangelical Relationship with God. New York: Knopf.
Marks, L. 2005. “Religion and bio-psycho- social health: A review and conceptual model.” Journal of Religion and Health 44(2): 173–186. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10943-005-2775-z
Maselko, J., C. Hughes and R. Cheney. 2011. “Religious social capital: its measurement and utility in the study of the social determinants of health.” Social Science and Medicine (1982) 73(5): 759–767. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.06.019
McKay, R., C. Efferson, H. Whitehouse and E. Fehr. 2011. “Wrath of God: Religious primes and punishment.” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 278: 1858–1863. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2010.2125
Miller, W. R. and C. E. Thoresen. 2003. “Spirituality, religion, and health: An emerging research field.” American Psychologist 58(1): 24–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.58.1.24
Nooney, J. and E. Woodrum. 2002. “Religious coping and church-based social support as predictors of mental health outcomes: testing a conceptual model.” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 41(2): 359–368. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1468-5906.00122
Powell, L. H., L. Shahabi and C. E. Thoresen. 2003. “Religion and spirituality: Linkages to physical health.” American Psychologist 58: 36–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.58.1.36
Salsman, J. M., T. L. Brown, E. H. Brechting and C. R. Carlson. 2005. The Link Between Religion and Spirituality and Psychological Adjustment: The Mediating Role of Optimism and Social Support.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 31(4): 522–535. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167204271563
Sasaki, J., H. S. Kim and J. Xu. 2011. “Religion and well-being: An analysis of an oxytocin receptor polymorphism (OXTR) and culture.” Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 42: 1394–1405. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022022111412526
Schjoedt, U., A. Geertz, H. Stødkild-Jørgensen and A. Roepstorff. 2009. “Highly religious participants recruit areas of social cognition in personal prayer.” Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 4(2): 199–207. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsn050
Schjoedt, U., H. Stødkilde-Jørgensen, A. W. Geertz and A. Roepstorff. 2008. “Rewarding prayers.” Neuroscience Letters 443(3): 165–168. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2008.07.068
Schjoedt, U., H. Stødkilde-Jørgensen, A. W. Geertz and A. Roepstorff. 2011. “The Power of Charisma: Perceived charisma inhibits the attentional and executive systems of believers in intercessory prayer.” Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 4(2): 199–207. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsn050
Schwab, R. 1990. “Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion.” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 29(3): 335–345. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1386462
Sibley, C. G. 2007. “The association between working models of attachment and personality: Toward an integrative framework operationalizing global relational models.” Journal of Research in Personality 41: 90–109. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2006.03.002
Sibley, C. G., N. Luyten, M. Purnomo, A. Moberly, L. W. Wootton, M. D. Hammond, N. Sengupta, R. Perry, T. West-Newman, M. S. Wilson, L. McLellan, W. J. Hoverd and A. Robertson. 2011. “The Mini-IPIP6: Validation and extension of a short measure of the Big-Six factors of personality in New Zealand.” New Zealand Journal of Psychology 40: 142–159.
Sosis, R. and B. Ruffle. 2003. “Religious Ritual and Cooperation: Testing for a Relationship on Israeli Religious and Secular Kibbutzim.” Current Anthropology 44(5): 713–722. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/379260
Sosis, R. and B. Ruffle. 2004. “Ideology, religion, and the evolution of cooperation: Field experiments on Israeli kibbutzim.” Research in Economic Anthropology 23: 89–117. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0190-1281(04)23004-9
Sterelny, K. 2011. The Evolved Apprentice. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Todd, N. R. and N. E. Allen. 2011. “Religious congregations as mediating structures for social justice: a multilevel examination.” American Journal of Community Psychology 48(3–4): 222–237. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10464-010-9388-8
Tomasello, M. 2000. “Culture and cognitive development.” Current Directions in Psychological Science 9(2): 37–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00056
Weingarten, C. P. and J. S. Chisholm. 2009. “Attachment and cooperation in religious groups.” Current Anthropology 50(6): 759–785. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/605767 http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/605767
White, P., J. Gunston, G. Salmond, J. Atkinson and P. Crampton. 2008. Atlas of Socio-economic Deprivation in New Zealand. Public Health Intelligence Occasional Bulletin 50. Wellington: Ministry of Health.
Williams, K. D., C.K.T. Cheung and W. Choi. 2000. “Cyberostracism: Effects of being ignored over the internet.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79: 748–762. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.79.5.748
Wilson, D., D. O’Brien and A. Sesma. 2009. “Human prosociality from an evolutionary perspective: Variation and correlations at a city-wide scale.” Evolution and Human Behavior 30(3): 190–200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2008.12.002
Wilson, D. S. 2002. Darwin’s Cathedral: Evolution, religion, and the nature of society. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Zak, P., A. Stanton, S. Ahmadi and S. Brosnan. 2007. “Oxytocin Increases Generosity in Humans.” PLoS ONE 2 11: e1128. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0001128
Atkinson, Q. and P. Bourrat. 2011. “Beliefs about God, the afterlife and morality support the role of supernatural policing in human cooperation.” Evolution and Human Behavior 32: 41–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2010.07.008
Barrett, J. L. 2011. Cognitive Science, Religion, and Theology: From Human Minds to Divine Minds. Westconshohocken PA: Templeton Press.
Boomsma, Dorret, Andreas Busjahn and Leena Peltonen. 2002. “Classical twin studies and beyond.” Nature Reviews Genetics 11: 872–882. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrg932
Boyd, R. and P. Richerson. 1985. Culture and the Evolutionary Process. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Boyer, P. 1994. The Naturalness of Religious Ideas: A Cognitive Theory of Religion. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Bulbulia, J. 2008. “Meme infection or religious niche construction? An adaptationist alternative to the cultural maladaptationist hypothesis.” Method and Theory in the Study of Religion 20(1): 67–107. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157006808X260241
Bulbulia, J. and A. Mahoney. 2008. “Religious solidarity: The hand grenade experiment.” Journal of Cognition and Culture 8: 295–320. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156853708X358191
Baumeister, R. and M. Leary. 1995. “The need to belong: desire for interpersonal attachments.” Psychological Bulletin 117(3): 497–529. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497
Christ, O., C. G. Sibley, and U. Wagner. 2012. “Multilevel modeling in personality and social psychology” . In The Oxford Handbook of Personality and Social Psychology, edited by K. Deaux and M. Snyder, 239–260. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cutrona, C. E. and D. W. Russell. 1987. “The provisions of social relationships and adaptation to stress.” Advances in Personal Relationships 1: 37–67.
Durkheim, E. 1995 /1915. The Elementary Forms of Religious Life. New York: Free Press.
Eysenck, M. W. 1998. “Personality and the psychology of religion.” Mental Health, Religion and Culture 1(1): 11–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13674679808406493
Fischer, R., R. Callander, P. Reddish and J. Bulbulia. “A field investigation of the effects of sacred values and synchronous movements in nine naturally occurring rituals.” under review.
Francis, L. J. and C. J. Jackson. 2003. “Eysenck’s dimensional model of personality and religion: Are religious people more neurotic?” Mental Health, Religion and Culture 6(1): 87–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1367467031000086279
Geertz, A. W. 2010. “Brain, body and culture: A biocultural theory of religion.” Method and Theory in the Study of Religion 22(4): 304–321. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157006810X531094
Geertz, A. W. and G. I. Markusson. 2010. “Religion is natural, atheism is not: On why everybody is both right and wrong.” Religion 40(3): 152–165. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.religion.2009.11.003
Gervais, W., A. Willard, A. Norenzayan and J. Henrich. 2011. “The cultural transmission of faith: Why natural intuitions and memory biases are necessary, but insufficient, to explain religious belief.” Religion 41(3): 389–410. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0048721X.2011.604510
Hall, D. E. 2006. “Religious attendance: More cost-effective than Lipitor?” Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine 19: 103–109. http://dx.doi.org/10.3122/jabfm.19.2.103
Hoverd, W. J., Q. Atkinson and C. G. Sibley. 2012. “Group size and the trajectory of religious identification.” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 51(2): 286–303. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5906.2012.01643.x
Johnson, D. 2005. “God’s punishment and public goods: A test of the supernatural punishment hypothesis in 186 world cultures.” Human Nature 16(4): 410–446. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12110-005-1017-0
Kim, H. S., D. K. Sherman, J. Y. Sasaki, J. Xu, T.Q. Chu, C. Ryu, et al. 2010. “Culture, distress, and oxytocin receptor polymorphism (OXTR) interact to influence emotional support seeking.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107(36): 15717–15721. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1010830107
Kirkpatrick, L. 1999. “Toward an evolutionary psychology of religion and personality.” Journal of Personality 67: 921–951. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-6494.00078
Koenig, H. G., J. C. Hays, L. K. George, D. G. Blazer D. B. Larson and L. R. Landerman. 1997. “Modelling the cross-sectional relationships between religion, physical health, social support, and depressive symptoms.” American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 5: 131–144.
Koenig, H. G., J. C. Hays, D. B. Larson, L. K. George, H. J. Cohen, M. E. McCullough, et al. 1999. “Does religious attendance prolong survival? A 6-year follow-up study of 3, 968 older adults.” Journal of Gerontology A Biological Sciences Medical Sciences 54: 370–376. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gerona/54.7.M370
Koenig, H. G., M. E. McCullough and D. B. Larson. 2001. Handbook of Religion and Health. Oxford: Oxford University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195118667.001.0001
Lane, J. D., H. M. Wellman and E. M. Evans. 2012. “Sociocultural input facilitates children’s developing understanding of extraordinary minds.” Child Development. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01741.x
Luhrmann, T. 2005. “The art of hearing God: absorption, dissociation, and contemporary American spirituality.” Spiritus 5(2): 133–157. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/scs.2006.0014
Luhrmann, T.. 2012. When God talks Back: Understanding the American Evangelical Relationship with God. New York: Knopf.
Marks, L. 2005. “Religion and bio-psycho- social health: A review and conceptual model.” Journal of Religion and Health 44(2): 173–186. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10943-005-2775-z
Maselko, J., C. Hughes and R. Cheney. 2011. “Religious social capital: its measurement and utility in the study of the social determinants of health.” Social Science and Medicine (1982) 73(5): 759–767. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.06.019
McKay, R., C. Efferson, H. Whitehouse and E. Fehr. 2011. “Wrath of God: Religious primes and punishment.” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 278: 1858–1863. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2010.2125
Miller, W. R. and C. E. Thoresen. 2003. “Spirituality, religion, and health: An emerging research field.” American Psychologist 58(1): 24–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.58.1.24
Nooney, J. and E. Woodrum. 2002. “Religious coping and church-based social support as predictors of mental health outcomes: testing a conceptual model.” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 41(2): 359–368. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1468-5906.00122
Powell, L. H., L. Shahabi and C. E. Thoresen. 2003. “Religion and spirituality: Linkages to physical health.” American Psychologist 58: 36–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.58.1.36
Salsman, J. M., T. L. Brown, E. H. Brechting and C. R. Carlson. 2005. The Link Between Religion and Spirituality and Psychological Adjustment: The Mediating Role of Optimism and Social Support.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 31(4): 522–535. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167204271563
Sasaki, J., H. S. Kim and J. Xu. 2011. “Religion and well-being: An analysis of an oxytocin receptor polymorphism (OXTR) and culture.” Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 42: 1394–1405. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022022111412526
Schjoedt, U., A. Geertz, H. Stødkild-Jørgensen and A. Roepstorff. 2009. “Highly religious participants recruit areas of social cognition in personal prayer.” Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 4(2): 199–207. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsn050
Schjoedt, U., H. Stødkilde-Jørgensen, A. W. Geertz and A. Roepstorff. 2008. “Rewarding prayers.” Neuroscience Letters 443(3): 165–168. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2008.07.068
Schjoedt, U., H. Stødkilde-Jørgensen, A. W. Geertz and A. Roepstorff. 2011. “The Power of Charisma: Perceived charisma inhibits the attentional and executive systems of believers in intercessory prayer.” Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 4(2): 199–207. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsn050
Schwab, R. 1990. “Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion.” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 29(3): 335–345. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1386462
Sibley, C. G. 2007. “The association between working models of attachment and personality: Toward an integrative framework operationalizing global relational models.” Journal of Research in Personality 41: 90–109. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2006.03.002
Sibley, C. G., N. Luyten, M. Purnomo, A. Moberly, L. W. Wootton, M. D. Hammond, N. Sengupta, R. Perry, T. West-Newman, M. S. Wilson, L. McLellan, W. J. Hoverd and A. Robertson. 2011. “The Mini-IPIP6: Validation and extension of a short measure of the Big-Six factors of personality in New Zealand.” New Zealand Journal of Psychology 40: 142–159.
Sosis, R. and B. Ruffle. 2003. “Religious Ritual and Cooperation: Testing for a Relationship on Israeli Religious and Secular Kibbutzim.” Current Anthropology 44(5): 713–722. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/379260
Sosis, R. and B. Ruffle. 2004. “Ideology, religion, and the evolution of cooperation: Field experiments on Israeli kibbutzim.” Research in Economic Anthropology 23: 89–117. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0190-1281(04)23004-9
Sterelny, K. 2011. The Evolved Apprentice. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Todd, N. R. and N. E. Allen. 2011. “Religious congregations as mediating structures for social justice: a multilevel examination.” American Journal of Community Psychology 48(3–4): 222–237. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10464-010-9388-8
Tomasello, M. 2000. “Culture and cognitive development.” Current Directions in Psychological Science 9(2): 37–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00056
Weingarten, C. P. and J. S. Chisholm. 2009. “Attachment and cooperation in religious groups.” Current Anthropology 50(6): 759–785. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/605767 http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/605767
White, P., J. Gunston, G. Salmond, J. Atkinson and P. Crampton. 2008. Atlas of Socio-economic Deprivation in New Zealand. Public Health Intelligence Occasional Bulletin 50. Wellington: Ministry of Health.
Williams, K. D., C.K.T. Cheung and W. Choi. 2000. “Cyberostracism: Effects of being ignored over the internet.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79: 748–762. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.79.5.748
Wilson, D., D. O’Brien and A. Sesma. 2009. “Human prosociality from an evolutionary perspective: Variation and correlations at a city-wide scale.” Evolution and Human Behavior 30(3): 190–200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2008.12.002
Wilson, D. S. 2002. Darwin’s Cathedral: Evolution, religion, and the nature of society. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Zak, P., A. Stanton, S. Ahmadi and S. Brosnan. 2007. “Oxytocin Increases Generosity in Humans.” PLoS ONE 2 11: e1128. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0001128
Published
2012-08-13
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Equinox Publishing Ltd.
How to Cite
Sibley, C. G., & Bulbulia, J. (2012). Healing Those Who Need Healing: How Religious Practice Interacts with Personality to Affect Social Belonging. Journal for the Cognitive Science of Religion, 1(1), 29-45. https://doi.org/10.1558/jcsr.v1i1.29
