Implicit Religion and Psychological Wellbeing
A Study Among Adolescents Without Formal Religious Affiliation or Practice
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1558/imre.v19i1.30009Keywords:
implicit religion, Psychology of Religion, Wellbeing, AdolescentsAbstract
This study examines Bailey’s notion of the persistence of implicit religion among a sample of 8,619 adolescents between the ages of 13 and 15 years in England and Wales who have no formal religious affiliation or practice. Implicit religion is operationalised as attachment to traditional Christian rites of passage. Young people who remain attached to these aspects of implicit religion display higher levels of psychological wellbeing, suggesting that implicit religion serves similar psychological functions to explicit religion.
References
Bailey, E. I. 1997. Implicit Religion in Contemporary Society. Kampen, Netherlands: Kok Pharos.
———. 1998. Implicit Religion: An Introduction. London: Middlesex University Press.
———. ed. 2002. The Secular Quest for Meaning in Life: Denton Papers In Implicit Religion. New York: The Edwin Mellon Press.
Bradburn, N. M. 1969. The Structure of Psychological Well-being. Chicago, IL: Aldine.
Brechting, E. H., T. L Brown, J.M. Salsman, S.E. Sauer and V.T. Holeman. 2010. “The Role of Religious Beliefs in Predicting Underage Alcohol Use.” Journal of Child and Adolescent Substance Abuse 19: 324–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1067828X.2010.502494
Chu, D. C. 2007. “Religiosity and Desistance from Drug Use.” Criminal Justice and Behavior 34: 661–679. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0093854806293485
Clarke, L., L. Beeghley and J. C. Cochran. 1990. “Religiosity, Social Class, and Alcohol Use: An Application of Reference Group Theory.” Sociological Perspectives 33: 201–218. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1389043
Cochran, J. K., L. Beeghley and E. W. Bock. 1992. “The Influence of Religious Stability and Homogamy on the Relationship between Religiosity and Alcohol Use among Protestants.” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 31: 441–456. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1386855
Cook, C. C. H., D. Goddard and R. Westall. 1997. “Knowledge and Experience of Drug Use amongst Church Affiliated Young People.” Drug and Alcohol Dependence 46: 9–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0376-8716(97)00036-7
Corulla, W. J. 1990. “A Revised Version of the Psychoticism Scale for Children.” Personality and Individual Differences 11: 65–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(90)90169-R
Cosper, R. L., I. O. Okraku and B. Neumann. 1987. “Tavern-going in Canada: A National Survey of Regulars at Public Drinking Establishments.” Journal of Studies on Alcohol 48: 252–259. http://dx.doi.org/10.15288/jsa.1987.48.252
Cronbach, L. J. 1951. “Coefficient Alpha and the Internal Structure of Tests.” Psychometrika, 16: 297–334. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02310555
DeVellis, R. F. 2003. Scale Development: Theory and Applications. London: Sage.
Durkheim, E. 1897. Le Suicide. Paris: Felix Alcan.
Eysenck, H. J., and S. B. G. Eysenck. 1975. Manual of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (Adult and Junior). London: Hodder and Stoughton.
Eysenck, S. B. G., H. J. Eysenck and P. Barrett. 1985. “A Revised Version of the Psychoticism Scale.” Personality and Individual Differences 6: 21–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(85)90026-1
Fawcett, B., L.J. Francis, J. Linkletter and M. Robbins. 2012. “Religiosity and Alcohol Avoidance: A Study Among Canadian Baptist Youth.” The Journal of Youth Ministry 11: 45–62.
Francis, L. J. 1996. “The Development of an Abbreviated Form of the Revised Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (JEPQR-A) Among 13–15 Year Olds. Personality and Individual Differences, 21: 835–844. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(96)00159-6
———. 2001. The Values Debate: A Voice from the Pupils. London: Woburn Press.
———. 2013a. “Implicit Religion, Explicit Religion and Purpose in Life: An Empirical Enquiry among 13- to 15-year-old Adolescents. Mental Health, Religion and Culture 16: 909–921. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2012.756615
———. 2013b. “The Association between Suicidal Ideation, Explicit Religion and Implicit Religion: An Empirical Enquiry among 13 to 15-year-old Adolescents. Implicit Religion 16: 93–109. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.1993.tb02079.x
Francis, L. J. and K. Mullen. 1993. “Religiosity and Attitudes towards Drug Use among 13 to15-year-olds in England.” Addiction 88: 665–672. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.1993.tb02079.x
Francis, L. J., R. Philipchalk and L. B. Brown. 1991. “The Comparability of the Short Form EPQ-R with the EPQ among Students in England, the USA, Canada and Australia. Personality and Individual Differences 12: 1129–1132. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(91)90075-M
Francis, L. J. and P. Richter. 2007. Gone for Good? Church-leaving and Returning in the Twenty-first Century. Peterborough: Epworth.
Francis, L. J. and M. Robbins. 2009. “Prayer, Purpose in Life, and Attitude toward Substances: A Study among 13 to 15-year-olds in England and Wales. Counselling and Spirituality 28(2): 83–104.
Hills, P. and L. J. Francis. 2005. “The Relationship of Religiosity and Personality with Suicidal Ideation. Mortality 10: 286–293. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13576270500321860
Hovey, J.D. 1999. “Religion and Suicidal Ideation in a Sample of Latin American Immigrants.” Psychological Reports 85: 171–177. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/PR0.85.5.171-177
Lester, D. and L.J. Francis. 1993. “Is Religiosity Related to Suicidal Ideation after Personality and Mood Are Taken into Account?” Personality and Individual Differences 15: 591–592. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(93)90342-Z
Lord, K. 2006. “Implicit Religion: Definition and Application.” Implicit Religion 9: 205–219.
Lubben, J. E., I. Chi and H. H. L. Kitano. 1988. “Exploring Filipino American Drinking Behaviour.” Journal of Studies on Alcohol 49: 26–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.15288/jsa.1988.49.26
Marion, M. S. and L. M. Range. 2003. “African American College Women’s Suicide Buffers.” Suicide and Life Threatening Behaviour 33: 33–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1521/suli.33.1.33.22780
Mellor, J. M. and B. A. Freeborn. 2011. “Religious Participation and Risky Health Behaviors among Adolescents.” Health Economics 20: 1226–1240. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/hec.1666
Mullen, K. and L. J. Francis. 1995. “Religiosity and Drug Use among Dutch School-Children.” Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education 41: 16–25.
Penny, G. and L. J. Francis. 2015. “Implicit Religion, Explicit Religion and Attitude toward Substances: An Empirical Enquiry among 13 to 15-year-old Adolescents.” Implicit Religion 18(3): 373–397. http://dx.doi.org/10.1558/imre.v18i3.28054
Rasic, D., S. Kisely and D. B. Langille. 2011. “Protective Associations of Importance of Religion and Frequency of Service Attendance with Depression Risk, Suicidal Behaviours and Substance Use in Adolescents in Nova Scotia, Canada.” Journal of Effective Disorders 132: 389–395. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2011.03.007
Regnerus, M. D. and G.H. Elder. 2003. “Religion and Vulnerability among Low-risk Adolescents.” Social Science Research 32: 633–658. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0049-089X(03)00027-9
Richter, P. and L. J. Francis. 1998. Gone But Not Forgotten: Church Leaving and Returning.” London: Darton, Longman and Todd.
Schnell, T., L. J. Francis and C. A. Lewis. 2011. “Psychological Perspectives on Implicit Religion.” Implicit Religion 4: 385–386. http://dx.doi.org/10.1558/imre.v14i4.385
Schweitzer, R., M. Klayich and J. MacLean. 1995. “Suicidal Ideation and Behaviours among University Students in Australia.” Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 29: 473–479. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/00048679509064956
Sloane, D. M. and R. H. Potvin. 1986. “Religion and Delinquency: Cutting Through the Maze.” Social Forces 65: 87–105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/sf/65.1.87
Steinman, K. J., A. K. Ferketich and T. Sahr. 2008. “The Dose-response Relationship of Adolescent Religious Activity and Substance Use: Variation across Demographic Groups.” Health Education and Behavior 35: 22–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1090198105284839
Toussaint, L. 2009. “Associations of Religiousness with 12-month Prevalence of Drug Use and Drug-related Sex.” International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction 7: 311–323. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11469-008-9171-3
Walker, D. 2013. “You Don’t Have to Go to Church to Be a Good Christian: The Implicit Religion of the Cathedral Carol Service Congregation.” Mental Health, Religion and Culture. 16(9): 903–908. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2012.758401
Walker, D., L.J. Francis and M. Robbins. 2010. “You Don’t Have to Go to Church to Be a Good Christian: The Implicit Religion of Rural Anglican Churchgoers Celebrating Harvest.” Implicit Religion 13: 319–325.
Zhang, J. and S. Jin. 1996. “Determinants of Suicide Ideation: A Comparison of Chinese and American College Students.” Adolescence 31: 451–467.
———. 1998. Implicit Religion: An Introduction. London: Middlesex University Press.
———. ed. 2002. The Secular Quest for Meaning in Life: Denton Papers In Implicit Religion. New York: The Edwin Mellon Press.
Bradburn, N. M. 1969. The Structure of Psychological Well-being. Chicago, IL: Aldine.
Brechting, E. H., T. L Brown, J.M. Salsman, S.E. Sauer and V.T. Holeman. 2010. “The Role of Religious Beliefs in Predicting Underage Alcohol Use.” Journal of Child and Adolescent Substance Abuse 19: 324–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1067828X.2010.502494
Chu, D. C. 2007. “Religiosity and Desistance from Drug Use.” Criminal Justice and Behavior 34: 661–679. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0093854806293485
Clarke, L., L. Beeghley and J. C. Cochran. 1990. “Religiosity, Social Class, and Alcohol Use: An Application of Reference Group Theory.” Sociological Perspectives 33: 201–218. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1389043
Cochran, J. K., L. Beeghley and E. W. Bock. 1992. “The Influence of Religious Stability and Homogamy on the Relationship between Religiosity and Alcohol Use among Protestants.” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 31: 441–456. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1386855
Cook, C. C. H., D. Goddard and R. Westall. 1997. “Knowledge and Experience of Drug Use amongst Church Affiliated Young People.” Drug and Alcohol Dependence 46: 9–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0376-8716(97)00036-7
Corulla, W. J. 1990. “A Revised Version of the Psychoticism Scale for Children.” Personality and Individual Differences 11: 65–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(90)90169-R
Cosper, R. L., I. O. Okraku and B. Neumann. 1987. “Tavern-going in Canada: A National Survey of Regulars at Public Drinking Establishments.” Journal of Studies on Alcohol 48: 252–259. http://dx.doi.org/10.15288/jsa.1987.48.252
Cronbach, L. J. 1951. “Coefficient Alpha and the Internal Structure of Tests.” Psychometrika, 16: 297–334. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02310555
DeVellis, R. F. 2003. Scale Development: Theory and Applications. London: Sage.
Durkheim, E. 1897. Le Suicide. Paris: Felix Alcan.
Eysenck, H. J., and S. B. G. Eysenck. 1975. Manual of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (Adult and Junior). London: Hodder and Stoughton.
Eysenck, S. B. G., H. J. Eysenck and P. Barrett. 1985. “A Revised Version of the Psychoticism Scale.” Personality and Individual Differences 6: 21–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(85)90026-1
Fawcett, B., L.J. Francis, J. Linkletter and M. Robbins. 2012. “Religiosity and Alcohol Avoidance: A Study Among Canadian Baptist Youth.” The Journal of Youth Ministry 11: 45–62.
Francis, L. J. 1996. “The Development of an Abbreviated Form of the Revised Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (JEPQR-A) Among 13–15 Year Olds. Personality and Individual Differences, 21: 835–844. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(96)00159-6
———. 2001. The Values Debate: A Voice from the Pupils. London: Woburn Press.
———. 2013a. “Implicit Religion, Explicit Religion and Purpose in Life: An Empirical Enquiry among 13- to 15-year-old Adolescents. Mental Health, Religion and Culture 16: 909–921. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2012.756615
———. 2013b. “The Association between Suicidal Ideation, Explicit Religion and Implicit Religion: An Empirical Enquiry among 13 to 15-year-old Adolescents. Implicit Religion 16: 93–109. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.1993.tb02079.x
Francis, L. J. and K. Mullen. 1993. “Religiosity and Attitudes towards Drug Use among 13 to15-year-olds in England.” Addiction 88: 665–672. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.1993.tb02079.x
Francis, L. J., R. Philipchalk and L. B. Brown. 1991. “The Comparability of the Short Form EPQ-R with the EPQ among Students in England, the USA, Canada and Australia. Personality and Individual Differences 12: 1129–1132. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(91)90075-M
Francis, L. J. and P. Richter. 2007. Gone for Good? Church-leaving and Returning in the Twenty-first Century. Peterborough: Epworth.
Francis, L. J. and M. Robbins. 2009. “Prayer, Purpose in Life, and Attitude toward Substances: A Study among 13 to 15-year-olds in England and Wales. Counselling and Spirituality 28(2): 83–104.
Hills, P. and L. J. Francis. 2005. “The Relationship of Religiosity and Personality with Suicidal Ideation. Mortality 10: 286–293. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13576270500321860
Hovey, J.D. 1999. “Religion and Suicidal Ideation in a Sample of Latin American Immigrants.” Psychological Reports 85: 171–177. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/PR0.85.5.171-177
Lester, D. and L.J. Francis. 1993. “Is Religiosity Related to Suicidal Ideation after Personality and Mood Are Taken into Account?” Personality and Individual Differences 15: 591–592. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(93)90342-Z
Lord, K. 2006. “Implicit Religion: Definition and Application.” Implicit Religion 9: 205–219.
Lubben, J. E., I. Chi and H. H. L. Kitano. 1988. “Exploring Filipino American Drinking Behaviour.” Journal of Studies on Alcohol 49: 26–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.15288/jsa.1988.49.26
Marion, M. S. and L. M. Range. 2003. “African American College Women’s Suicide Buffers.” Suicide and Life Threatening Behaviour 33: 33–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1521/suli.33.1.33.22780
Mellor, J. M. and B. A. Freeborn. 2011. “Religious Participation and Risky Health Behaviors among Adolescents.” Health Economics 20: 1226–1240. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/hec.1666
Mullen, K. and L. J. Francis. 1995. “Religiosity and Drug Use among Dutch School-Children.” Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education 41: 16–25.
Penny, G. and L. J. Francis. 2015. “Implicit Religion, Explicit Religion and Attitude toward Substances: An Empirical Enquiry among 13 to 15-year-old Adolescents.” Implicit Religion 18(3): 373–397. http://dx.doi.org/10.1558/imre.v18i3.28054
Rasic, D., S. Kisely and D. B. Langille. 2011. “Protective Associations of Importance of Religion and Frequency of Service Attendance with Depression Risk, Suicidal Behaviours and Substance Use in Adolescents in Nova Scotia, Canada.” Journal of Effective Disorders 132: 389–395. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2011.03.007
Regnerus, M. D. and G.H. Elder. 2003. “Religion and Vulnerability among Low-risk Adolescents.” Social Science Research 32: 633–658. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0049-089X(03)00027-9
Richter, P. and L. J. Francis. 1998. Gone But Not Forgotten: Church Leaving and Returning.” London: Darton, Longman and Todd.
Schnell, T., L. J. Francis and C. A. Lewis. 2011. “Psychological Perspectives on Implicit Religion.” Implicit Religion 4: 385–386. http://dx.doi.org/10.1558/imre.v14i4.385
Schweitzer, R., M. Klayich and J. MacLean. 1995. “Suicidal Ideation and Behaviours among University Students in Australia.” Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 29: 473–479. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/00048679509064956
Sloane, D. M. and R. H. Potvin. 1986. “Religion and Delinquency: Cutting Through the Maze.” Social Forces 65: 87–105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/sf/65.1.87
Steinman, K. J., A. K. Ferketich and T. Sahr. 2008. “The Dose-response Relationship of Adolescent Religious Activity and Substance Use: Variation across Demographic Groups.” Health Education and Behavior 35: 22–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1090198105284839
Toussaint, L. 2009. “Associations of Religiousness with 12-month Prevalence of Drug Use and Drug-related Sex.” International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction 7: 311–323. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11469-008-9171-3
Walker, D. 2013. “You Don’t Have to Go to Church to Be a Good Christian: The Implicit Religion of the Cathedral Carol Service Congregation.” Mental Health, Religion and Culture. 16(9): 903–908. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2012.758401
Walker, D., L.J. Francis and M. Robbins. 2010. “You Don’t Have to Go to Church to Be a Good Christian: The Implicit Religion of Rural Anglican Churchgoers Celebrating Harvest.” Implicit Religion 13: 319–325.
Zhang, J. and S. Jin. 1996. “Determinants of Suicide Ideation: A Comparison of Chinese and American College Students.” Adolescence 31: 451–467.
Published
2016-03-02
Issue
Section
Articles
How to Cite
Francis, L. J., & Penny, G. (2016). Implicit Religion and Psychological Wellbeing: A Study Among Adolescents Without Formal Religious Affiliation or Practice. Implicit Religion, 19(1), 61-78. https://doi.org/10.1558/imre.v19i1.30009
