Gender, Religion and Work
Comparative Analysis of South Asian Migrants
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1558/firn.v3i1.29Keywords:
discrimination, education and English skill, employment, female Muslim migrants, multicultural Australia, South AsiaAbstract
This article explains the work patterns and determinants of the South Asian female Muslim migrants in the multiethnic and multicultural setting of Australia. The paper also compares the work differentials of this group of female migrants with non Muslim female migrants from the same region of birth, Muslim women from other regions of birth, other groups of female migrants, and native-born women. Accordingly, the multivariate results of this comparative analysis provide the opportunity to examine appropriately the influence of religion on the employment status of Muslim women from the South Asian region in both intra region and worldwide comparisons.
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References
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Anker, R. 1997. “Theories of Occupational Segregation by Sex: An Overview,” International Labour Review, 136.3, 1–14.
—1998. Gender and Job: Sex Segregation of Occupations in the World. Geneva: International Labour Organization.
Baubock, R. 1996. “Social and Cultural Integration in a Civil Society,” in R. Baubock, A. Heller and A. R. Zolberg eds. The Challenge of Diversity: Integration and Pluralism in Societies of Immigration. Avebury: Ashgate, 67–131.
Berry, J. W. 1992.“Acculturation and Adaptation in a New Society,” International Migration, 30, 69–101.
Bloom, D., and A. Brender. 1993. “Labour and the Earning World Economy,” Population Bulletin, 48.2, 1–32.
Brooks, C., and P. A. Volker. 1985. “Labour Market Success and Failure: An Analysis of the Factors Leading to the Workplace Destinations of the Australian Population,” in P. A. Volker ed. The Structure and Duration of Unemployment in Australia: Proceedings of a Conference. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service, 43–75.
Caldwell, J. C. 1986. “Routes to Low Mortality in Poor Countries,” Population and Development Review, 12.2, 171–220. doi:10.2307/1973108
Caldwell, B., and Barkat-e- Khuda. 2000. “The First Generation to Control Family Size: A Microstudy of the Causes of Fertility Decline in a Rural Area of Bangladesh,” Studies in Family Planning, 31.3, 239–51. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2000.00239.x
Carens, J. H., and M. Williams. 1996. “Muslim Minorities in Liberal Democracies: The Politics of Misrecognition,” in R. Baubock, A. Heller and A. R. Zolberg eds. The Challenge of Diversity: Integration and Pluralism in Societies of Immigration. Avebury: Ashgate, 157–86.
Carr, M., and M. Chen. 2004. “Globalization, Social Exclusion and Gender,” International Labour Review, 143.1-2, 129–60.
Casterline, J. B., et al. 2001. “Obstacles to Contraceptive Use in Pakistan: A Study in Punjab,” Studies in Family Planning, 32.2, 95–110. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2001.00095.x
Clark, R., T. W. Ramsbey and E. S. Adler. 1991. “Culture, Gender, and Labor Force Participation: A Cross-National Study,” Gender and Society, 5.1, 47–66.
Desbarats, J. 1986. “Ethnic Differences in Adaptation: Sino-Vietnamese Refugee in the United States,” International Migration Review, 20.2, 405–27. doi:10.2307/2546042
Dharmalingam, A., and S. P. Morgan. 2004. “Pervasive Muslim-Hindu Fertility Differences in India,” Demography, 41.3, 529–45. doi:10.1353/dem.2004.0020
Esposito, J. L. 1998. “Introduction: Women in Islam and Muslim Societies,” in Y. Y. Haddad and J. L. Esposito, Islam, Gender, & Social Change. Oxford: Oxford University Press, ix–xiv.
Evans, M. D. R. 1984. “Immigrant Women in Australia: Resources, Family, and Work,” International Migration Review, 18.4, 1063–90. doi:10.2307/2546073
Evans, M. D. R., and J. Kelley. 1986. “Immigrants’ Work: Equality and Discrimination in the Australian Labour Market,” Australia and New Zealand Journal of Sociology, 22.2, 187–207. doi:10.1177/144078338602200202
—1991. “Prejudice, Discrimination, and the Labour Market: Attainments of Immigrants in Australia,” American Journal of Sociology, 97.3, 721–59. doi:10.1086/229818
Fadel, M. 1997. “Two Women, One Man: Knowledge, Power, and Gender in Medieval Sunni Legal Thought,” International Journal of Middle East Studies, 29.2, 185–204.
Ferdows, A. K. 1983. “Women and Islamic Revolution,” International Journal of Middle East Studies, 15.2, 283–98.
Foroutan, Y. 2005. “Asian Women in Australia: A Demographic and Economic Approach.” Paper presented at Eighth Women in Asia Conference. Women’s Caucus of the Asian Studies Association of Australia, Sydney: The University of Technology, 26–28 September.
—2006. “Multicultural Assessment on Interaction between Gender and Islamic Identity: Special Focus on South Asian Women.” Paper presented at the 19th European Conference on Modern South Asian Studies, The International Institute for Asian Studies, Leiden, The Netherlands, 27–30 June.
—2007. “Determinants of Women”s Employment Participation: Muslim/non-Muslim Differentials in Australia.” PhD dissertation. Canberra: The Australian National University.
—2008a. “Women’s Employment, Religion and Multiculturalism: Socio-Demographic Emphasis,” Journal of Population Research, 25.1, 163–90.
—2008b. “Employment Differentials of Second Generation Muslim Migrants: Assimilation and Discrimination Hypotheses,” Immigrants & Minorities, 26.3, 219–41. doi:10.1080/ 02619280802528452
—2008c. “Migration Differentials in Women’s Market Employment: An Empirical and Multicultural Analysis,” International Migration Review, 42.3, 677–705. doi:10.1111/j.17477379.2008.00142.x
—2009. “Gender and Religion: The Status of Women in the Muslim World,” in P. Clarke and P. Beyer eds. The World's Religions: Continuities and Transformations. London: Routledge, 223–35.
—forthcoming. “Employment Differentials of Christian and Muslim Lebanese Women in Australia: A Comparative Perspective,” Australian Religion Studies Review.
Gallagher, E., and M. Searle. 1983. “Women’s Health Care: A Study of Islamic Society,” in J. Morgan ed. Third World Medicine and Social Change. Lunham, MD: University Press of America, 85–96
Hull, T. H. 2005. “Reproductive Health Trends in Islamic Countries,” in G. W. Jones and M. S. Karim, Islam, the State and Population. London: Hurst, 56–80.
International Labour Organisation (ILO). 2001. Key Indicators of the Labour Market 2001–2002. Geneva: ILO.
Iredale, R. 1988. The Recognition of Overseas Qualifications and Skills. Canberra: The Office of Multicultural Affairs.
Jejeebhoy, S. J., and Z. A. Sathar. 2001. “Women’s Autonomy in India and Pakistan: The Influence of Religion and Region,” Population and Development Review, 27.4, 687–712. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2001.00687.x
Jones, G. 2005. A Demographic Perspective on the Muslim World. Working Paper No. 42. Singapore: National University of Singapore.
Kelley, J., and I. McAllister. 1984. “Immigration, Socio-economic Attainment, and Politics in Australia,” The British Journal of Sociology, 35.3, 387–405. doi:10.2307/590972
Khoo, S-E., and P. McDonald. 2001. Settlement Indicators and Benchmarks. Canberra: The Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs.
Kirk, D. 1965. “Factors Affecting Moslem Natality,” in Family Planning and Population Programs: A Review of World Developments, edited by the planning committee for the international conference on family planning program. Geneva: The University of Chicago Press, 561–79.
Knodel, J., et al. 1999. “Religion and Reproduction: Muslims and Buddhist Thailand,” Population Studies, 53.2, 149–64. doi:10.1080/00324720308083
Lehrer, E. L. 1995. “The Role of Husband’s Religion on the Economic and Demographic Behavior of Families,” Journal for Scientific Study of Religion, 35.2, 145–55. doi:10.2307/1387081
—1996. “Religion as a Determinant of Marital Fertility,” Journal of Population Economics, 9.2, 173–96. doi:10.1007/s001480050013
—1999. “Married Women’s Labour Behavior in the 1990s: Differences by Life-cycle Stage,” Social Sciences Quarterly, 80.3, 574–90.
—2004. “Religion as Determinant of Economic and Demographic Behavior in the United States,” Population and Development Review, 30.4, 707–26. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2004. 00038.x
Lutz, W. 1987. “Culture, Religion, and Fertility: A Global View,” Genus, 43.3–4, 15–34.
McAllister, I. 1986. “Speaking the Language: Language Maintenance and English Proficiency among Immigrant Youth in Australia,” Ethnic and Racial Studies, 9, 24–42.
—1995. “Occupational Mobility among Immigrants: The Impact of Migration on Economic Success in Australia,” International Migration Review, 29.2, 441–68. doi:10.2307/2546789
McDonald, P. 2000. “Gender Equity, Social Institutions and the Future of Fertility,” Journal of Population Research, 17.1, 1–16. doi:10.1007/BF03029445
McQuillan, K. 2004. “When Does Religion Influence Fertility?” Population and Development Review, 30.1, 25–56. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2004.00002.x
Mishra, V. 2004. Muslim/Non-Muslim Differentials in Fertility and Family Planning in India. EastWest Center Working Paper, 112. Population and Health Series.
Morgan, S. P., et al. 2002. “Muslim and Non-Muslim Differences in Female Autonomy and Fertility: Evidence from Four Asian Countries,” Population and Development Review, 28.3, 515–37. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2002.00515.x
Obermeyer, C. M. 1992. “Islam, Women, and Politics: The Demography of Arab Countries,” Population and Development Review, 18.1, 33–60. doi:10.2307/1971858
Omran, A. R., and F. Roudi. 1993. “The Middle East Population Puzzle,” Population Bulletin, 48.1, 1–38.
Rashad, H. 2000. “Demographic Transition in Arab Countries: A New Perspective,” Journal of Population Research, 17.1, 83–101. doi:10.1007/BF03029449
Read, J. G. 2004. “Cultural Influences on Immigrant Women’s Labour Force Participation: The Arab-American Case,” International Migration Review, 38.1, 52–77.
Roy, O. 2002. Globalised Islam: The Search for a New Ummah. London: Hurths.
Saeed, A. 2003. Islam in Australia. NSW: Allen & Unwin.
Siraj, M. 1984. “Islamic Attitudes to Female Employment in Industrializing Economies: Some Notes from Malaysia,” in G. W. Jones ed. Women in the Urban and Industrial Workforce: Southeast and East Asia. Canberra: The Australian National University, 163–73.
Sorensen, M. 1993. The Match between Education and Occupation for Immigrant Women in Canada. Research Discussion Paper, 102, 1–26.
Stier, H., and M. Tienda. 1992. “Family, Work and Women: The Labour Supply of Hispanic Immigrant Wives,” International Migration Review, 26.4, 1291–313. doi:10.2307/2546884
VandenHeuvel, A., and M. Wooden. 1996. Non-English Speaking Background Immigrant Women and Part-Time Work. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service.
—1999. New Settlers Have their Say. Canberra: The Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs.
Weeks, J. R. 1988. “The Demography of Islamic Nations,” Population Bulletin, 43.4, 5–54.
Wooden, M. 1994. “The Labour-Market Experience of Immigrants,” in M. Wooden, R. Holton, G. Hugo and J. Sloan eds. Australian Immigration: A Survey of Issues. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service, 227–92.
Wooden, M., and A. VandenHeuvel. 1997. “Family Composition and the Labour Supply Choices of Married Immigrant Women,” Australian Journal of Labour Economics, 1.2, 121–42.
Yamanaka, K., and K. McClelland. 1994. “Earning the Model-Majority Image: Diverse Strategies of Economic Adaptation by Asian-American Women,” Ethnic and Racial Studies, 17.1, 79–114.
Anker, R. 1997. “Theories of Occupational Segregation by Sex: An Overview,” International Labour Review, 136.3, 1–14.
—1998. Gender and Job: Sex Segregation of Occupations in the World. Geneva: International Labour Organization.
Baubock, R. 1996. “Social and Cultural Integration in a Civil Society,” in R. Baubock, A. Heller and A. R. Zolberg eds. The Challenge of Diversity: Integration and Pluralism in Societies of Immigration. Avebury: Ashgate, 67–131.
Berry, J. W. 1992.“Acculturation and Adaptation in a New Society,” International Migration, 30, 69–101.
Bloom, D., and A. Brender. 1993. “Labour and the Earning World Economy,” Population Bulletin, 48.2, 1–32.
Brooks, C., and P. A. Volker. 1985. “Labour Market Success and Failure: An Analysis of the Factors Leading to the Workplace Destinations of the Australian Population,” in P. A. Volker ed. The Structure and Duration of Unemployment in Australia: Proceedings of a Conference. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service, 43–75.
Caldwell, J. C. 1986. “Routes to Low Mortality in Poor Countries,” Population and Development Review, 12.2, 171–220. doi:10.2307/1973108
Caldwell, B., and Barkat-e- Khuda. 2000. “The First Generation to Control Family Size: A Microstudy of the Causes of Fertility Decline in a Rural Area of Bangladesh,” Studies in Family Planning, 31.3, 239–51. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2000.00239.x
Carens, J. H., and M. Williams. 1996. “Muslim Minorities in Liberal Democracies: The Politics of Misrecognition,” in R. Baubock, A. Heller and A. R. Zolberg eds. The Challenge of Diversity: Integration and Pluralism in Societies of Immigration. Avebury: Ashgate, 157–86.
Carr, M., and M. Chen. 2004. “Globalization, Social Exclusion and Gender,” International Labour Review, 143.1-2, 129–60.
Casterline, J. B., et al. 2001. “Obstacles to Contraceptive Use in Pakistan: A Study in Punjab,” Studies in Family Planning, 32.2, 95–110. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2001.00095.x
Clark, R., T. W. Ramsbey and E. S. Adler. 1991. “Culture, Gender, and Labor Force Participation: A Cross-National Study,” Gender and Society, 5.1, 47–66.
Desbarats, J. 1986. “Ethnic Differences in Adaptation: Sino-Vietnamese Refugee in the United States,” International Migration Review, 20.2, 405–27. doi:10.2307/2546042
Dharmalingam, A., and S. P. Morgan. 2004. “Pervasive Muslim-Hindu Fertility Differences in India,” Demography, 41.3, 529–45. doi:10.1353/dem.2004.0020
Esposito, J. L. 1998. “Introduction: Women in Islam and Muslim Societies,” in Y. Y. Haddad and J. L. Esposito, Islam, Gender, & Social Change. Oxford: Oxford University Press, ix–xiv.
Evans, M. D. R. 1984. “Immigrant Women in Australia: Resources, Family, and Work,” International Migration Review, 18.4, 1063–90. doi:10.2307/2546073
Evans, M. D. R., and J. Kelley. 1986. “Immigrants’ Work: Equality and Discrimination in the Australian Labour Market,” Australia and New Zealand Journal of Sociology, 22.2, 187–207. doi:10.1177/144078338602200202
—1991. “Prejudice, Discrimination, and the Labour Market: Attainments of Immigrants in Australia,” American Journal of Sociology, 97.3, 721–59. doi:10.1086/229818
Fadel, M. 1997. “Two Women, One Man: Knowledge, Power, and Gender in Medieval Sunni Legal Thought,” International Journal of Middle East Studies, 29.2, 185–204.
Ferdows, A. K. 1983. “Women and Islamic Revolution,” International Journal of Middle East Studies, 15.2, 283–98.
Foroutan, Y. 2005. “Asian Women in Australia: A Demographic and Economic Approach.” Paper presented at Eighth Women in Asia Conference. Women’s Caucus of the Asian Studies Association of Australia, Sydney: The University of Technology, 26–28 September.
—2006. “Multicultural Assessment on Interaction between Gender and Islamic Identity: Special Focus on South Asian Women.” Paper presented at the 19th European Conference on Modern South Asian Studies, The International Institute for Asian Studies, Leiden, The Netherlands, 27–30 June.
—2007. “Determinants of Women”s Employment Participation: Muslim/non-Muslim Differentials in Australia.” PhD dissertation. Canberra: The Australian National University.
—2008a. “Women’s Employment, Religion and Multiculturalism: Socio-Demographic Emphasis,” Journal of Population Research, 25.1, 163–90.
—2008b. “Employment Differentials of Second Generation Muslim Migrants: Assimilation and Discrimination Hypotheses,” Immigrants & Minorities, 26.3, 219–41. doi:10.1080/ 02619280802528452
—2008c. “Migration Differentials in Women’s Market Employment: An Empirical and Multicultural Analysis,” International Migration Review, 42.3, 677–705. doi:10.1111/j.17477379.2008.00142.x
—2009. “Gender and Religion: The Status of Women in the Muslim World,” in P. Clarke and P. Beyer eds. The World's Religions: Continuities and Transformations. London: Routledge, 223–35.
—forthcoming. “Employment Differentials of Christian and Muslim Lebanese Women in Australia: A Comparative Perspective,” Australian Religion Studies Review.
Gallagher, E., and M. Searle. 1983. “Women’s Health Care: A Study of Islamic Society,” in J. Morgan ed. Third World Medicine and Social Change. Lunham, MD: University Press of America, 85–96
Hull, T. H. 2005. “Reproductive Health Trends in Islamic Countries,” in G. W. Jones and M. S. Karim, Islam, the State and Population. London: Hurst, 56–80.
International Labour Organisation (ILO). 2001. Key Indicators of the Labour Market 2001–2002. Geneva: ILO.
Iredale, R. 1988. The Recognition of Overseas Qualifications and Skills. Canberra: The Office of Multicultural Affairs.
Jejeebhoy, S. J., and Z. A. Sathar. 2001. “Women’s Autonomy in India and Pakistan: The Influence of Religion and Region,” Population and Development Review, 27.4, 687–712. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2001.00687.x
Jones, G. 2005. A Demographic Perspective on the Muslim World. Working Paper No. 42. Singapore: National University of Singapore.
Kelley, J., and I. McAllister. 1984. “Immigration, Socio-economic Attainment, and Politics in Australia,” The British Journal of Sociology, 35.3, 387–405. doi:10.2307/590972
Khoo, S-E., and P. McDonald. 2001. Settlement Indicators and Benchmarks. Canberra: The Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs.
Kirk, D. 1965. “Factors Affecting Moslem Natality,” in Family Planning and Population Programs: A Review of World Developments, edited by the planning committee for the international conference on family planning program. Geneva: The University of Chicago Press, 561–79.
Knodel, J., et al. 1999. “Religion and Reproduction: Muslims and Buddhist Thailand,” Population Studies, 53.2, 149–64. doi:10.1080/00324720308083
Lehrer, E. L. 1995. “The Role of Husband’s Religion on the Economic and Demographic Behavior of Families,” Journal for Scientific Study of Religion, 35.2, 145–55. doi:10.2307/1387081
—1996. “Religion as a Determinant of Marital Fertility,” Journal of Population Economics, 9.2, 173–96. doi:10.1007/s001480050013
—1999. “Married Women’s Labour Behavior in the 1990s: Differences by Life-cycle Stage,” Social Sciences Quarterly, 80.3, 574–90.
—2004. “Religion as Determinant of Economic and Demographic Behavior in the United States,” Population and Development Review, 30.4, 707–26. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2004. 00038.x
Lutz, W. 1987. “Culture, Religion, and Fertility: A Global View,” Genus, 43.3–4, 15–34.
McAllister, I. 1986. “Speaking the Language: Language Maintenance and English Proficiency among Immigrant Youth in Australia,” Ethnic and Racial Studies, 9, 24–42.
—1995. “Occupational Mobility among Immigrants: The Impact of Migration on Economic Success in Australia,” International Migration Review, 29.2, 441–68. doi:10.2307/2546789
McDonald, P. 2000. “Gender Equity, Social Institutions and the Future of Fertility,” Journal of Population Research, 17.1, 1–16. doi:10.1007/BF03029445
McQuillan, K. 2004. “When Does Religion Influence Fertility?” Population and Development Review, 30.1, 25–56. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2004.00002.x
Mishra, V. 2004. Muslim/Non-Muslim Differentials in Fertility and Family Planning in India. EastWest Center Working Paper, 112. Population and Health Series.
Morgan, S. P., et al. 2002. “Muslim and Non-Muslim Differences in Female Autonomy and Fertility: Evidence from Four Asian Countries,” Population and Development Review, 28.3, 515–37. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2002.00515.x
Obermeyer, C. M. 1992. “Islam, Women, and Politics: The Demography of Arab Countries,” Population and Development Review, 18.1, 33–60. doi:10.2307/1971858
Omran, A. R., and F. Roudi. 1993. “The Middle East Population Puzzle,” Population Bulletin, 48.1, 1–38.
Rashad, H. 2000. “Demographic Transition in Arab Countries: A New Perspective,” Journal of Population Research, 17.1, 83–101. doi:10.1007/BF03029449
Read, J. G. 2004. “Cultural Influences on Immigrant Women’s Labour Force Participation: The Arab-American Case,” International Migration Review, 38.1, 52–77.
Roy, O. 2002. Globalised Islam: The Search for a New Ummah. London: Hurths.
Saeed, A. 2003. Islam in Australia. NSW: Allen & Unwin.
Siraj, M. 1984. “Islamic Attitudes to Female Employment in Industrializing Economies: Some Notes from Malaysia,” in G. W. Jones ed. Women in the Urban and Industrial Workforce: Southeast and East Asia. Canberra: The Australian National University, 163–73.
Sorensen, M. 1993. The Match between Education and Occupation for Immigrant Women in Canada. Research Discussion Paper, 102, 1–26.
Stier, H., and M. Tienda. 1992. “Family, Work and Women: The Labour Supply of Hispanic Immigrant Wives,” International Migration Review, 26.4, 1291–313. doi:10.2307/2546884
VandenHeuvel, A., and M. Wooden. 1996. Non-English Speaking Background Immigrant Women and Part-Time Work. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service.
—1999. New Settlers Have their Say. Canberra: The Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs.
Weeks, J. R. 1988. “The Demography of Islamic Nations,” Population Bulletin, 43.4, 5–54.
Wooden, M. 1994. “The Labour-Market Experience of Immigrants,” in M. Wooden, R. Holton, G. Hugo and J. Sloan eds. Australian Immigration: A Survey of Issues. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service, 227–92.
Wooden, M., and A. VandenHeuvel. 1997. “Family Composition and the Labour Supply Choices of Married Immigrant Women,” Australian Journal of Labour Economics, 1.2, 121–42.
Yamanaka, K., and K. McClelland. 1994. “Earning the Model-Majority Image: Diverse Strategies of Economic Adaptation by Asian-American Women,” Ethnic and Racial Studies, 17.1, 79–114.
Published
2009-07-19
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Section
Articles
How to Cite
Foroutan, Y. (2009). Gender, Religion and Work: Comparative Analysis of South Asian Migrants. Fieldwork in Religion, 3(1), 29-50. https://doi.org/10.1558/firn.v3i1.29
