The Bad Side to The Good Story
Vilhjalmur Stefansson and Christian Conversion in the Mackenzie Delta 1906–1925
Keywords:
Vilhjalmur Stefansson, Conversion, MacKenzie Delta, Inuit , Colville, W. Fry, Ilavinirk, Kublualuk, Mission, Mamayayauk, H.R. Marsh, Nunatagmiut, Ovayoak, Pannigabluk, shaman, Siksigaluk, syphilis, I.O. Stringer, C.E. WhittakerAbstract
Between 1909 and 1913, the Inuit of the Mackenzie Delta (or Eskimos as they were then known) were all baptized and joined the Anglican Church. These conversions were both sudden and surprising given that evangelization had failed for decades. Why conversion happened and how it changed them—as perceived at the time by ethnologist Vilhjalmur Stefansson and Anglican cleric Charles E. Whittaker—is what follows here, drawn primarily from diaries, and archival resources.
References
Abbreviations
AAT: Anglican Church of Canada, General Synod Archives, Toronto, Stringer family fonds (M74–3) and Diocese of the Arctic fonds (M71–4 and M75–1).
ACCR: Anglican Church of Canada, Dioceses of the Mackenzie and Yukon, Registers of Eskimo Baptism, Confirmation, Marriage, and Death 1909–26. PAA 70.387.
PAA: Public Archives of Alberta, Edmonton.
VSD: Diaries of Vilhjalmur Stefansson, listed separately below by date. Copies of the diaries come from three main sources, including Stefansson 1914a, Palssen 2001 and typed transcripts of the Stefansson diaries from the Dartmouth College Library. The Stefansson 1914a diary does not start until 1906, 11, 08.
Note concerning dates
All correspondence is cited by year-day-month.
Anglican Church Registers and Statistics (ACCR) 1910 “Statistics for years ending 1910.” Single mimeographed diocesan sheet with handwritten entries by C. E. Whittaker for missions “To the Eskimos, MR 150/9.
“Record of Baptisms (Eskimo) from the record now kept at Aklavik.” (Baptisms for 1910–1912) MR150/12c.
“Record of Confirmations (Eskimo) taken from the Register kept at Aklavik.” Typed list for 1912–25. Signed by Bishops Stringer and Lucas. MR 150/12f.
“Record of Marriages (Eskimo) in the Diocese of the Mackenzie River and Diocese of Yukon, taken from the Register kept at Aklavik.” Typed list for 1906–26. Signed by Bishop Stringer and W. A. Geddes. MR 150/12d.
Anonymous 1912a 09.09. Stefansson Back from Arctic Trip. Thinks Blonde Eskimos Lost Norse Colonists. Seattle, Washington. Clipping from unidentified newspaper. Dartmouth College Library Stefansson Collection, 98 (3), II–13.
b 09.09. Discovers White Eskimo Tribe. Descendants of Scandinavian Colonists. Seattle, Washington. Clipping from unidentified newspaper. Dartmouth College Library Stefansson Collection 98 (3), II–13. (Incorrectly identified as 1907 by handwriting on the document).
06.07. Stefansson Writes His Final Word. Arctic Explorer Fires Last Shot at Clergymen Who Attacked Him. Clipping from unidentified newspaper. Dartmouth College Library Stefansson Collection, 98 (3), III–25.
Portion of printed report (possibly for all of Canada, perhaps put out by the Church Missionary Society in London in 1913–1914). “North-West Canada Missions” section, Chap. 7, “Diocese of Mackenzie River,” 219. PAA 70.387, MR 250/2.
Berton, Pierre 2004 The Blond Eskimo, In Prisoners of the North, 65–124. Doubleday Canada.
Diubaldo, Richard 1978 Stefansson and the Canadian Arctic. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press.
Fienup-Riordan, Ann 1991 Anthropologists, Missionaries, and Natives. In The Real People and the People of the People of Thunder: The Yup’ik Encounter with Moravian Missionaries John and Edith Kilbuck. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.
Finnie, I. O. 1927 13, 12. Letter to W. W. Cory. National Archives of Canada. RG85. Vol. 852. File 565.
Fry, Walter H. 1917 20, 12. Annual Letter, AAT, M75–1, box 3, file Fry
07, 01. Letter to I. O. Stringer, AAT M75–1, box 3, file W. H. Fry.
Hanson, Carl 1941 Stefansson: Prophet of the North. New York and London: Harper and Brothers.
Hester, Edward 1922–24 Aklavik journal (handwritten diary). AAT M71–4, series 2–4d, box 10 A, file Hester.
Hoare, W. 1920 22, 01. Letter to J. R. Lucas, PAA 70.387 MR 200/84, file Hoare
Maver, L. G. 1923 Near Starvation on Hudson Bay: The Stefansson Method of ‘Living off the Country’ Would Not Apply on the Hudson Bay Coast Says This H.B.C. Post Manager Who Made Arduous Trip. The Beaver 1923 (July): 367–372.
Nef Stefansson, Evelyn 1986 Vilhjalmur Stefansson. In S. Milligan and W. O. Kupsch (eds.), Living Explorers of the Canadian Arctic, 86–90. Yellowknife: Outcrop.
Palssen, Gisli 2001 Writing on Ice: The Ethnographic Notebooks of Vilhjalmur Stefansson. Hanover: University Press of New England.
Stefansson, Vilhjalmur. Diaries (VSD) 1906 22, 07. In Palssen 2001, 89 (without indication of site) and in Dartmouth College Library, Stefansson Papers, MSS 98 (5): V–8 (October and November 1915) and V–9 (Feb. 1916).
09, 12. In Palssen 2001, 149. Missing in Stefansson 1914a.
16, 03. In Palssen 2001, 160. Missing in Stefansson 1914a.
20, 03. In Stefansson 1914a, 224. Missing in Palssen 2001.
14, 04. In Palssen 2001, 162. Missing in Stefansson 1914a.
26, 05. In Palssen 2001, 165. Stefansson 1914a, 207.
09, 12. In Palssen 2001, 181. Missing in Stefansson 1914a.
14, 12. In Palssen 2001, 182. Missing in Stefansson 1914a.
16, 12. In Palssen 2001, 182. Missing in Stefansson 1914a.
06, 03. In Palssen 2001, 225. Missing in Stefansson 1914a.
03, 05. In Palssen 2001, 193, Stefansson 1914a, 227.
31, 10. In Palssen 2001, 281. Missing in Stefansson 1914a.
12, 01. In Palssen 2001, 287, Stefansson 1914a, 341.
21, 04. In Palssen 2001, 304, Stefansson 1914a, 381.
08, 05. In Palssen 2001, 305. Missing in Stefansson 1914a.
15, 10. In Dartmouth College Library, Stefansson Papers, MSS 98 (5): V–8 (October and November 1915) and V–9 (Feb. 1916).
31, 10. In Dartmouth College Library, Stefansson Papers, MSS 98 (5): V–8 (October and November 1915) and V–9 (Feb. 1916).
26, 11. In Dartmouth College Library, Stefansson Papers, MSS 98 (5): V–8 (October and November 1915) and V–9 (Feb. 1916).
09, 02. In Dartmouth College Library, Stefansson Papers, MSS 98 (5): V–8 (October and November 1915) and V–9 (Feb. 1916).
05, 03. In Dartmouth College Library, Stefansson Papers, MSS 98 (5): V–8 (October and November 1915) and V–9 (Feb. 1916).
Stefansson, Vilhjalmur 1908a Wintering Among the Eskimos. Harper’s 117 (June): 40–48.
b The Home Life of the Eskimo. Harper’s 117 (Nov.): 721–730.
An Ethnologist in the Arctic. Harper’s 120 (Feb.): 455–463,
b Typewritten summaries of American Museum of Natural History correspondence with Stefansson. Stefansson comments (without specific dates) regarding winter of 1909–10. Dartmouth College Library, Stefansson Papers, MSS 98 (3): III–5.
a My Life With the Eskimos. New York: MacMillan and Co.
b Religious Beliefs of the Eskimo. Harper’s 127 (Nov.): 869–78.
a The Stefansson-Anderson Arctic Expedition of the American Museum: Preliminary Report. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History. New York: American Museum of Natural History. XIV, part 1.
b 08, 02. Letter to Hon. Clifford Sifton. National Archives of Canada. Borden Papers. RLB 529–557. (MG 26, H 1c, vol. 185). Pp. 101560–70 from reel C-4384
23.11. Letter to the Editor, (1915-06-11. from Armstrong Point, Winter Quarters Canadian Arctic Expedition). In Letter of Explorer Stefansson. His Views of Missionaries—Suffers at hands of “Fake” Newspapers. Catholic Register. Dartmouth College Library, Stefansson Papers, MSS 98 (6): VI–19.
Temperature Factor in Determining the Age of Maturity Among the Eskimos,” Journal of the American Medical Association 4: 669–670.
The Friendly Arctic: The Story of Five Years in Polar Regions. New York: MacMillan. (Reprinted 1925 and 1927)
The Northward Course of Empire. New York: Harcourt.
My Life with the Eskimos. (Revised and abridged edition). London: George G. Harrap.
Stein, Hannah 1927 Why I Am Not Married. As told to Hannah Stein by Vilhjalmur Stefansson. Ottawa Journal. 5 Dec. 1927. National Archives of Canada, RG85, vol. 852, fi le 565.
Stringer, Isaac O. 1894a 24, 06. Letter to Bishop W. Reeve. AAT. M74–3, 1.A.1.
b 02, 07. Diary 1894. AAT. M74–3, 1.B.1.
n.d., 02. Letter to W. Reeve. AAT. M74–3, 1A.1.
23, 07. Diary 1900. AAT. M74–3, 1.B.1.
12, 15. Letter to “My Darling Wife” (Sadie Stringer) from Nation Road House, Yukon. AAT. M74–3, 1.B.1.
a 13, 07. Diary 1912. AAT. M74–3, 1.B.1.
b 23, 11. Letter to J. R. Lucas. PAA 70.387. MR 231/21.
10, 04. Letter to J. R. Lucas. PAA 70.387. MR 200/149
a 13, 03. Letter to J. R. Lucas. PAA 70.387. MR 200/149.
b 21, 03. Letter to J. R. Lucas. PAA 70.387. MR 200/149.
13, 11. Letter to J. R. Lucas. PAA 70.387. MR 200/150.
11, 06. Letter to J. R. Lucas. PAA 70.387. MR 200/150.
30, 04. Letter to Stefansson. On stationary of the Diocese of the Yukon, but written from 131 Confederation Life Building, Toronto. Stefansson’s address was the Harvard Club, New York. Photocopy obtained from filmmaker Richard Stringer (grandson of I. O. Stringer) who obtained a copy while at the Stefansson archives at DCL in August 2005 (no file number included).
Vanast, Walter 1996 Arctic Bodies, Frontier Souls: Missionaries and Medical Care in the Canadian North, 1896–1926. Unpublished Ph. D. diss., University of Wisconsin.
“Your Devoted Lover: the Arctic Correspondence of Isaac and Sadie Stringer, 1892–1901.” Unpublished manuscript.
Kokhlik’s People: the Kukpugmiut of the Mackenzie Delta 1892–1901: edited transcription of the diaries and correspondence of Isaac and Sarah Stringer, Will Young, and C. E. Whittaker as they relate to the Kukpugmiut. Unpublished manuscript.
Adam to Yekipegiak: An Alphabetic Guide to the Kukpugmiut of the Mackenzie Delta, 1859–1924: Compilation of historical references to individual Kukpugmiut. Unpublished manuscript.
a The Nunatagmiut of the Mackenzie Delta, 1892–1901: Edited transcription of the diaries and correspondence of Isaac and Sarah Stringer, Will Young, and C. E. Whittaker as they relate to the Nunatagmiut. Unpublished manuscript.
b A’bouk to Zexana: An Alphabetic Guide to the Nunatagmiut of the Mackenzie Delta, 1890–1925. Unpublished manuscript.
a Christ among the Whalers: The Anglican Mission in the Beaufort Sea 1893–1901: Edited transcriptions of the diaries of Isaac Stringer as they relate to whalers. Unpublished manuscript.
b Arctic Blows: The edited diaries of whalers (Captains Bodfish, Leavitt and Mrs. Sophie Porter) in the Beaufort Sea, 1892–1900. Unpublished manuscript.
c Whalers’ Words—the Beaufort Sea publications of Captains Allen, Bodfish, Cook, and Tilton. Unpublished manuscript.
d Abbott to Wrench: An Alphabetic Guide to Whalers in the Beaufort Sea, 1890–1925. Unpublished manuscript.
e Amundsen to Wilson. An Alphabetic guide to Traders, Miners, Explorers and other whites in the Region of the Mackenzie Delta. 1890–1902. Unpublished manuscript.
f The Death of Robert Thomas: a whaler killed in his 1896 attempt to escape from Herschel Island to the Yukon. Unpublished manuscript.
a Bompas to Young. An Alphabetic Guide to Clerics in the Region of the Mackenzie Delta. 1858–1910. Unpublished manuscript.
b Kukpugmiut Life: Traditional customs and religious beliefs as told by Kukpugmiut and others to V. Stefansson. Unpublished manuscript.
Sourcing the Good Story: Mackenzie Eskimo Christian Conversion, 1857–1925. Unpublished manuscript.
Glorious Consummation: A Sexual History of Early Missions to the Mackenzie Eskimo, 1857–1898. Unpublished manuscript.
White, James 1914 06, 07. Letter to Sir Robert Borden. (Cover document to explain forwarding to the prime minister of Stefansson’s Feb. 8, 1914 letter to Sifton). National Archives of Canada. Borden Papers. RLB 529–557. (MG 26, H 1c , vol. 185). P. 10159 from reel C-4384.
Whittaker, Charles E. n.d. Memoranda of the Mission to the Mackenzie River Eskimos. Typed manuscript. AAT, Arctic Collection, C. E. Whittaker, M71–4, Series 5–3–1 #2 Box 15.
Letter to Anglican Church mission headquarters (no exact recipient identification). Reprinted in an annual church publication with mission reports for 1912–13, 235–236. PAA, 70.387, MR250/2.
Arctic Eskimo: A Record of Fifty Years’ Experience and Observation Among the Eskimo. London: Seeley, Service.
